{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,25]],"date-time":"2026-01-25T04:27:27Z","timestamp":1769315247421,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]],"date-time":"2019-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1558310400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]],"date-time":"2019-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1558310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Research Council","award":["ERCPoC 768815"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ERCPoC 768815"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007610","name":"Vlaamse Instelling voor Technologisch Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SOFI 2014-2017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SOFI 2014-2017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007610","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Infect Dis Poverty"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]},"DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-019-0544-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]],"date-time":"2019-05-20T11:03:22Z","timestamp":1558350202000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Stigma and epilepsy in onchocerciasis-endemic regions in Africa: a review and recommendations from the onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy working group"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Sarah","family":"O\u2019Neill","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Irani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joseph Nelson","family":"Siewe Fodjo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Denis","family":"Nono","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Catherine","family":"Abbo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yasuaki","family":"Sato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Augustine","family":"Mugarura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Housseini","family":"Dolo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maya","family":"Ronse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alfred K.","family":"Njamnshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Colebunders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"544_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e461","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000461","volume":"3","author":"SDS Pion","year":"2009","unstructured":"Pion SDS, Kaiser C, Boutros-Toni F, Cournil A, Taylor MM, Meredith SEO, et al. Epilepsy in onchocerciasis endemic areas: systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based surveys. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2009;3:e461.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"544_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(02)90433-5","volume":"96","author":"M Boussinesq","year":"2002","unstructured":"Boussinesq M, Pion SDS, Demanga-Ngangue A, Kamgno J. Relationship between onchocerciasis and epilepsy: a matched case-control study in the Mbam Valley, Republic of Cameroon. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002;96:537\u201341.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"544_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005732","volume":"11","author":"B Levick","year":"2017","unstructured":"Levick B, Laudisoit A, Tepage F, Ensoy-Musoro C, Mandro M, Bonareri Osoro C, et al. High prevalence of epilepsy in onchocerciasis endemic regions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017;11:1\u201314.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"544_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2016.05.013","volume":"32","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2016","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Hendy A, van Oijen M. Nodding syndrome in onchocerciasis endemic areas. Trends Parasitol. 2016;32:581\u20133.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"544_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30425-0","volume":"18","author":"CB Chesnais","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chesnais CB, Nana-Djeunga HC, Njamnshi AK, Lenou-Nanga CG, Boull\u00e9 C, Bissek AZ, et al. The temporal relationship between onchocerciasis and epilepsy: a population-based cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18:1278\u201386.","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"issue":"377","key":"544_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaam8532","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aam8532","volume":"9","author":"Robert Colebunders","year":"2017","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Titulaer MJ. Nodding syndrome: preventable and treatable. Sci Transl Med. 2017;9. \n                    https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/scitranslmed.aam8532\n                    \n                  .","journal-title":"Science Translational Medicine"},{"key":"544_CR7","first-page":"176","volume":"13","author":"PS Spencer","year":"2013","unstructured":"Spencer PS, Palmer VS, Jilek-Aall L. Nodding syndrome: origins and natural history of a longstanding epileptic disorder in sub-Saharan Africa. Afr Health Sci. 2013;13:176\u201382.","journal-title":"Afr Health Sci"},{"key":"544_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2017.11.009","volume":"34","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2018","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Nelson Siewe FJ, Hotterbeekx A. Onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy, an additional reason for strengthening onchocerciasis elimination programs. Trends Parasitol. 2018;34:208\u201316.","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"544_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0603a","volume":"86","author":"SDS Pion","year":"2012","unstructured":"Pion SDS, Boussinesq M. Significant association between epilepsy and presence of onchocercal nodules: case-control study in Cameroon. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012;86:557.","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"544_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2147","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002147","volume":"7","author":"C Kaiser","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kaiser C, Pion SDS, Boussinesq M. Case-control studies on the relationship between onchocerciasis and epilepsy: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7:e2147.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"544_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1909.130401","volume":"19","author":"SF Dowell","year":"2013","unstructured":"Dowell SF, Sejvar JJ, Riek L, Vandemaele K a H, Lamunu M, Kuesel AC, et al. Nodding syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19:1374\u201384.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"544_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70321-6","volume":"12","author":"JJ Sejvar","year":"2013","unstructured":"Sejvar JJ, Kakooza AM, Foltz JL, Makumbi I, Atai-Omoruto AD, Malimbo M, et al. Clinical, neurological, and electrophysiological features of nodding syndrome in Kitgum, Uganda: an observational case series. Lancet Neurol. 2013;12:166\u201374.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"544_CR13","first-page":"529","volume":"13","author":"AS Winkler","year":"2013","unstructured":"Winkler AS, Friedrich K, Velicheti S, Dharsee J, K\u00f6nig R, Nassri A, et al. MRI findings in people with epilepsy and nodding syndrome in an area endemic for onchocerciasis: an observational study. Afr Health Sci. 2013;13:529\u201340.","journal-title":"Afr Health Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"544_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e002540","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2012-002540","volume":"3","author":"Richard Idro","year":"2013","unstructured":"Idro R, Opoka RO, Aanyu HT, Kakooza-Mwesige A, Piloya-Were T, Namusoke H, et al. Nodding syndrome in Ugandan children--clinical features, brain imaging and complications: a case series. BMJ Open. 2013;3(5). \n                    https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2012-002540\n                    \n                  .","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"544_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2016.03.002","volume":"45","author":"R Idro","year":"2016","unstructured":"Idro R, Opar B, Wamala J, Abbo C, Onzivua S, Mwaka DA, et al. Is nodding syndrome an Onchocerca volvulus-induced neuroinflammatory disorder? Uganda\u2019s story of research in understanding the disease. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;45:112\u20137.","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"key":"544_CR16","first-page":"219","volume":"13","author":"R Idro","year":"2013","unstructured":"Idro R, Musubire KA, Byamah Mutamba B, Namusoke H, Muron J, Abbo C, et al. Proposed guidelines for the management of nodding syndrome. Afr Health Sci. 2013;13:219\u201332.","journal-title":"Afr Health Sci"},{"key":"544_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e006476","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2014-006476","volume":"4","author":"R Idro","year":"2014","unstructured":"Idro R, Namusoke H, Abbo C, Mutamba BB, Kakooza-Mwesige A, Opoka RO, et al. Patients with nodding syndrome in Uganda improve with symptomatic treatment: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open4. 2014;4:e006476.","journal-title":"BMJ Open4"},{"key":"544_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-018-0481-9","volume":"7","author":"NVS Vinkeles Melchers","year":"2018","unstructured":"Vinkeles Melchers NVS, Mollenkopf S, Colebunders R, Edlinger M, Coffeng LE, Irani J, et al. Burden of onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy: first estimates and research priorities. Infect Dis Poverty. 2018;7:101.","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"544_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S85","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1998.11813371","volume":"92","author":"M Hagan","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hagan M. Onchocercal dermatitis: clinical impact. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1998;92(Suppl 1):S85\u201396.","journal-title":"Ann Trop Med Parasitol"},{"key":"544_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-3-762","volume":"3","author":"H Riasi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Riasi H, Rajabpour Sanati A, Ghaemi K. The stigma of epilepsy and its effects on marital status. Springerplus. 2014;3:762.","journal-title":"Springerplus."},{"key":"544_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(06)70629-9","volume":"6","author":"G Birbeck","year":"2007","unstructured":"Birbeck G, Chomba E, Atadzhanov M, Mbewe E, Haworth A. The social and economic impact of epilepsy in Zambia: a cross-sectional study. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6:39\u201344.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"544_CR22","first-page":"522","volume":"5","author":"R Wolf","year":"2003","unstructured":"Wolf R, Orion E, Matz H. Onchocerciasis (river blindness). Isr Med Assoc J. 2003;5:522\u20133.","journal-title":"Isr Med Assoc J"},{"key":"544_CR23","volume-title":"Neglected tropical diseases and conditions of the nervous system","author":"EN Tabah","year":"2014","unstructured":"Tabah EN, Yepnjio FN, Njamnshi AK. Stigma in neurological diseases in the tropics. In: Bentivoglio M, Cavalheiro E, Kristensson K, Patel N, editors. Neglected tropical diseases and conditions of the nervous system. New York: Springer; 2014."},{"key":"544_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2014.10.027","volume":"42","author":"K Buchmann","year":"2015","unstructured":"Buchmann K. These nodding people \u2019 : experiences of having a child with nodding syndrome in postconflict northern Uganda. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;42:71\u20137.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2014.02.031","volume":"33","author":"Y Maiga","year":"2014","unstructured":"Maiga Y, Albakaye M, Laho L, Traor\u00e9 B, Cissoko Y, Hassane S, et al. Current beliefs and attitudes regarding epilepsy in Mali. Epilepsy Behav. 2014;33:115\u201321.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-016-1993-7","volume":"9","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2016","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Hendy A, Mokili JL, Wamala JF, Kaducu J, Kur L, et al. Nodding syndrome and epilepsy in onchocerciasis endemic regions: comparing preliminary observations from South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo with data from Uganda. BMC Res Notes. 2016;9:182.","journal-title":"BMC Res Notes."},{"key":"544_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.106.025791","volume":"190","author":"G Thornicroft","year":"2007","unstructured":"Thornicroft G, Rose D, Kassam A, Sartorius N. Stigma: ignorance, prejudice or discrimination? Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:192\u20133.","journal-title":"Br J Psychiatry"},{"key":"544_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2005.04.009","volume":"7","author":"R Baskind","year":"2005","unstructured":"Baskind R, Birbeck GL. Epilepsy-associated stigma in sub-Saharan Africa : the social landscape of a disease. Epilepsy Behav. 2005;7:68\u201373.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR29","unstructured":"Goffman E. Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Touchstone; 1963."},{"key":"544_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.27.1.363","volume":"27","author":"BG Link","year":"2001","unstructured":"Link BG, Phelan JC. Conceptualizing stigma. Annu Rev Sociol. 2001;27:363\u201385.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Sociol"},{"key":"544_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2011.02.014","volume":"22","author":"PT Fernandes","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fernandes PT, Snape DA, Beran RG, Jacoby A. Epilepsy stigma: what do we know and where next? Epilepsy Behav. 2011;22:55\u201362.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR32","first-page":"444","volume":"22","author":"KM Fiest","year":"2011","unstructured":"Fiest KM, Birbeck GL, Jacoby A, Jette N, Fernandes PT, Snape DA, et al. Stigma in epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2011;22:444.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2010.10.017","volume":"19","author":"HM de Boer","year":"2010","unstructured":"de Boer HM. Epilepsy stigma: moving from a global problem to global solutions. Seizure. 2010;19:630\u20136.","journal-title":"Seizure."},{"key":"544_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1528-1157.2002.32201.x","volume":"43","author":"GL Birbeck","year":"2002","unstructured":"Birbeck GL, Hays RD, Cui X, Vickrey BG. Seizure reduction and quality of life improvements in people with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2002;43:535\u20138.","journal-title":"Epilepsia."},{"key":"544_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(92)90193-T","volume":"34","author":"A Jacoby","year":"1992","unstructured":"Jacoby A. Epilepsy and the quality of everyday life. Findings from a study of people with well-controlled epilepsy. Soc Sci Med. 1992;34:657\u201366.","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"544_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(94)90396-4","volume":"38","author":"A Jacoby","year":"1994","unstructured":"Jacoby A. Felt versus enacted stigma: a concept revisited. Evidence from a study of people with epilepsy in remission. Soc Sci Med. 1994;38:269\u201374.","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"544_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1980.tb04091.x","volume":"21","author":"R Ryan","year":"1980","unstructured":"Ryan R, Kempner K, Emlen AC. The stigma of epilepsy as a self-concept. Epilepsia. 1980;21:433\u201344.","journal-title":"Epilepsia."},{"key":"544_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1080\/01459740.2001.9966182","volume":"19","author":"R Reis","year":"2001","unstructured":"Reis R. Epilepsy and self-identity among the Dutch. Med Anthropol. 2001;19:355\u201382.","journal-title":"Med Anthropol"},{"key":"544_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-018-0400-0","volume":"7","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2018","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Mandro M, Njamnshi A, Boussinesq M, Hotterbeekx A, Kamgno J, et al. Report of the first international workshop on onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy. Infect Dis Poverty. 2018;7:23.","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty."},{"key":"544_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-018-0498-0","volume":"7","author":"H Dolo","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dolo H, Mandro M, Wonya\u2019Rossi D, Ngave F, Fraeyman J, Siewe JN, et al. Community perceptions of epilepsy and its treatment in an onchocerciasis endemic region in Ituri, Democratic Republic of Congo. Infect Dis poverty. 2018;7:115.","journal-title":"Infect Dis poverty"},{"key":"544_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2018.10.021","volume":"79","author":"D Mukendi","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mukendi D, Tepage F, Akonda I, Siewe JN, Rotsaert A, Ndibmune CN, et al. High prevalence of epilepsy in an onchocerciasis endemic health zone in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, despite 14 years of community-directed treatment with ivermectin: a mixed-method assessment. Int J Infect Dis. 2019;79:187\u201394.","journal-title":"Int J Infect Dis"},{"key":"544_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25069","DOI":"10.3402\/gha.v7.25069","volume":"7","author":"K Buchmann","year":"2014","unstructured":"Buchmann K. \u201cYou sit in fear\u201d: understanding perceptions of nodding syndrome in post-conflict northern Uganda. Glob Health Action. 2014;7:25069.","journal-title":"Glob Health Action"},{"key":"544_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1965.tb04970.x","volume":"41","author":"L Jilek-Aal","year":"1965","unstructured":"Jilek-Aal L. Epilepsy in the Wapogoro tribe in Tanganyika. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1965;41:57\u201385.","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr Scand"},{"key":"544_CR44","first-page":"305","volume":"1","author":"W Jilek","year":"1970","unstructured":"Jilek W, Jilek-Aall L. The problem of epilepsy in a rural Tanzanian tribe. Afr J Med Sci. 1970;1:305\u20137.","journal-title":"Afr J Med Sci"},{"key":"544_CR45","first-page":"33","volume":"6","author":"C Gerrits","year":"1983","unstructured":"Gerrits C. Conceptions and explanations of sii epilepsy. a medical anthropological study among the Bassa and Kpelle in Liberia. Curare. 1983;6:33\u201340.","journal-title":"Curare."},{"key":"544_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70114-0","volume":"13","author":"A Ba-Diop","year":"2014","unstructured":"Ba-Diop A, Marin B, Druet-Cabanac M, Ngoungou EB, Newton CR, Preux PM. Epidemiology, causes, and treatment of epilepsy in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13:1029\u201344.","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"544_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-1211(98)00007-2","volume":"30","author":"C Kaiser","year":"1998","unstructured":"Kaiser C, Asaba G, Leichsenring M, Kabagambe G. High incidence of epilepsy related to onchocerciasis in West Uganda. Epilepsy Res. 1998;30:247\u201351.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res"},{"key":"544_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2008.09.004","volume":"82","author":"F Prischich","year":"2008","unstructured":"Prischich F, De Rinaldis M, Bruno F, Egeo G, Santori C, Zappaterreno A, et al. High prevalence of epilepsy in a village in the Littoral Province of Cameroon. Epilepsy Res. 2008;82:200\u201310.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res"},{"key":"544_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2018.11.004","volume":"63","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2018","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Y Carter J, Olore PC, Puok K, Bhattacharyya S, Menon S, et al. High prevalence of onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy in villages in Maridi County, republic of South Sudan: a community-based survey. Seizure. 2018;63:93\u2013101.","journal-title":"Seizure."},{"key":"544_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2018.11.008","volume":"90","author":"JFN Siewe","year":"2019","unstructured":"Siewe JFN, Ngarka L, Tatah G, Mengnjo MK, Nfor LN, Chokote ES, et al. Clinical presentations of onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy (OAE) in Cameroon. Epilepsy Behav. 2019;90:70\u20138.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siewe Fodjo JN, Colebunders R. Intervention for reducing epilepsy-associated stigma. Epilepsy Behav. 2019;90:295.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2018.09.011"},{"key":"544_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2018.10.004","volume":"62","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2018","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Abd-elfarag G, Carter JY, Claver P, Puok K, Menon S, et al. Clinical characteristics of onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy in villages in Maridi County, republic of South Sudan. Seizure. 2018;62:108\u201315.","journal-title":"Seizure."},{"key":"544_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12054","volume":"2","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2017","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Njamnshi AK, van Oijen M, Mukendi D, Kashama JM, Mandro M, et al. Onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy: from recent epidemiological and clinical findings to policy implications. Epilepsia Open. 2017;2:145\u201352.","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"544_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004478","volume":"10","author":"R Colebunders","year":"2016","unstructured":"Colebunders R, Tepage F, Rood E, Mandro M, Abatih EN, Musinya G, et al. Prevalence of river epilepsy in the Orientale Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016;10:1\u201313.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"544_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(98)00007-0","volume":"47","author":"WR Brieger","year":"1998","unstructured":"Brieger WR, Oshiname FO, Ososanya OO. Stigma associated with onchocercal skin disease among those affected near the Ofiki and Oyan Rivers in western Nigeria. Soc Sci Med. 1998;47:841\u201352.","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"544_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2012.02.009","volume":"106","author":"YFL Tchounkeu","year":"2012","unstructured":"Tchounkeu YFL, Onyeneho NG, Wanji S, Kabali AT, Manianga C, Amazigo UV, et al. Changes in stigma and discrimination of onchocerciasis in Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2012;106:340\u20137.","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"544_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-018-0497-1","volume":"7","author":"JN Siewe Fodjo","year":"2018","unstructured":"Siewe Fodjo JN, Tatah G, Tabah EN, Ngarka L, Nfor LN, Chokote SE, et al. Epidemiology of onchocerciasis-associated epilepsy in the Mbam and Sanaga river valleys of Cameroon: impact of more than 13 years of ivermectin. Infect Dis poverty. 2018;7:114.","journal-title":"Infect Dis poverty."},{"key":"544_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2018.04.014","volume":"85","author":"M Kaddumukasa","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kaddumukasa M, Kaddumukasa MN, Buwembo W, Munabi IG, Blixen C, Lhatoo S, et al. Epilepsy misconceptions and stigma reduction interventions in sub-Saharan Africa, a systematic review. Epilepsy Behav. 2018;85:21\u20137.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/13648470.2017.1361652","volume":"30","author":"K Van Bemmel","year":"2017","unstructured":"Van Bemmel K, Van der Weegen K. Universal classifications , national approaches and specific situations : a comparative study on the conceptualization of nodding syndrome in Uganda and Tanzania. Anthropol Med. 2017;30:1\u201320. \n                    https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13648470.2017.1361652\n                    \n                  .","journal-title":"Anthropol Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"544_CR60","first-page":"63","volume":"2","author":"K Van Bemmel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Van Bemmel K. The quest for treatment . The violated body of nodding syndrome in northern Uganda. JPSS. 2016;2(2):63\u201378.","journal-title":"JPSS."},{"issue":"1","key":"544_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1080\/13557858.2013.780233","volume":"19","author":"K Van Bemmel","year":"2014","unstructured":"Van Bemmel K, Derluyn I, Stroeken K. Nodding syndrome or disease ? On the conceptualization of an illness-in-the-making. Ethn Health. 2014;19(1):100\u201318.","journal-title":"Ethn Health"},{"key":"544_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1177\/0308275X15614635","volume":"36","author":"K Van Bemmel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Van Bemmel K. The rise and fall of nodding syndrome in public discourse : an analysis of newspaper coverage in Uganda. Crit Anthropol. 2016;36:168\u201396.","journal-title":"Crit Anthropol"},{"key":"544_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2009.10.018","volume":"17","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2010","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK, ACZ-K B, Yepnjio FN, Tabah EN, Angwafor SA, Kuate CT, et al. A community survey of knowledge, perceptions, and practice with respect to epilepsy among traditional healers in the Batibo Health District, Cameroon. Epilepsy Behav. 2010;17:95\u2013102.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2008.09.012","volume":"14","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK, Angwafor SA, Tabah EN, Jallon P, Muna WFT. General public knowledge, attitudes, and practices with respect to epilepsy in the Batibo Health District, Cameroon. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;14:83\u20138.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2015.03.028","volume":"46","author":"F Sebera","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sebera F, Munyandamutsa N, Teuwen DE, Pierre I, Gallo A, To A, et al. Addressing the treatment gap and societal impact of epilepsy in Rwanda \u2014 results of a survey conducted in 2005 and subsequent actions. Epilepsy Behav. 2015;46:126\u201332.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2013.07.034","volume":"29","author":"P Adjei","year":"2013","unstructured":"Adjei P, Akpalu A, Laryea R, Nkromah K, Sottie C, Ohene S, et al. Beliefs on epilepsy in northern Ghana. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;29:316\u201321.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1999.tb00723.x","volume":"40","author":"L Jilek-Aall","year":"1999","unstructured":"Jilek-Aall L. Morbus sacer in Africa: some religious aspects of epilepsy in traditional cultures. Epilepsia. 1999;40:382\u20136.","journal-title":"Epilepsia."},{"key":"544_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2009.02155.x","volume":"50","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK, Angwafor SA, Baumann F, Angwafo FF III, Jallon P, Muna WFT. Knowledge, attitudes, and practice of Cameroonian medical students and graduating physicians with respect to epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2009;50:1296\u20139.","journal-title":"Epilepsia."},{"key":"544_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2009.12.027","volume":"17","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2010","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK, Tabah EN, Bissek A-CZ-K, Yepnjio FN, Angwafor SA, Dema F, et al. Knowledge, attitudes and practices with respect to epilepsy among student nurses and laboratory assistants in the south west region of Cameroon. Epilepsy Behav. 2010;17:381\u20138.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1993.tb02127.x","volume":"34","author":"HT Rwiza","year":"1993","unstructured":"Rwiza HT, Matuja WB, Kilonzo GP, Haule J, Mbena P, Mwang\u2019ombola R, et al. Knowledge, attitude, and practice toward epilepsy among rural Tanzanian residents. Epilepsia. 1993;34:1017\u201323.","journal-title":"Epilepsia."},{"key":"544_CR71","first-page":"27","volume":"45","author":"R Giel","year":"1968","unstructured":"Giel R. The epileptic outcast. East Afr Med J. 1968;45:27\u201331.","journal-title":"East Afr Med J"},{"key":"544_CR72","first-page":"351","volume":"32","author":"LF Andermann","year":"1995","unstructured":"Andermann LF. Epilepsy in developing countries. Transcult Psychiatr Res Rev. 1995;32:351\u201384.","journal-title":"Transcult Psychiatr Res Rev"},{"key":"544_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1979.tb04845.x","volume":"20","author":"L Jilek-Aall","year":"1979","unstructured":"Jilek-Aall L, Jilek W, Miller JR. Clinical and genetic aspects of seizure disorders prevalent in an isolated African population. Epilepsia. 1979;20:613\u201322.","journal-title":"Epilepsia."},{"key":"544_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2015.10.023","volume":"54","author":"M Kaddumukasa","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kaddumukasa M, Kakooza A, Kayima J, Kaddumukasa MN, Ddumba E, Mugenyi L, et al. Community knowledge of and attitudes toward epilepsy in rural and urban Mukono district, Uganda: a cross-sectional study. Epilepsy Behav. 2016;54:7\u201311.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR75","volume-title":"Ethnography of the social and cultural perspectives of neurological disorders in Northern Uganda","author":"D Nono","year":"2016","unstructured":"Nono D. Ethnography of the social and cultural perspectives of neurological disorders in Northern Uganda. Gulu: Implications for health seeking; 2016."},{"key":"544_CR76","first-page":"13","volume":"40","author":"WB Matuja","year":"1994","unstructured":"Matuja WB, Rwiza HT. Knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) towards epilepsy in secondary school students in Tanzania. Cent Afr J Med. 1994;40:13\u20138.","journal-title":"Cent Afr J Med"},{"key":"544_CR77","first-page":"613","volume":"13","author":"MB Duggan","year":"2013","unstructured":"Duggan MB. Epilepsy and its effects on children and families in rural Uganda. Afr Health Sci. 2013;13:613\u201323.","journal-title":"Afr Health Sci"},{"key":"544_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.2014.18.255.3607","volume":"18","author":"LF Owolabi","year":"2014","unstructured":"Owolabi LF, Shehu NM, Owolabi SD. Epilepsy and education in developing countries: a survey of school teachers\u2019 knowledge about epilepsy and their attitude towards students with epilepsy in northwestern Nigeria. Pan Afr Med J. 2014;18:255.","journal-title":"Pan Afr Med J"},{"key":"544_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2013.01.016","volume":"22","author":"BA Ezeala-Adikaibe","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ezeala-Adikaibe BA, Achor JU, Onwukwe J, Ekenze OS, Onwuekwe IO, Chukwu O, et al. Knowledge, attitude and practice towards epilepsy among secondary school students in Enugu, Southeast Nigeria. Seizure. 2013;22:299\u2013302.","journal-title":"Seizure."},{"key":"544_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2009.06.043","volume":"285","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK, Angwafor SA, Tabah EN, Yepnjio FN, Lekoubou AZ, Dema F, et al. Knowledge, perceptions and practice with respect to epilepsy among traditional healers in the Batibo health district, Cameroon. J Neurol Sci. 2009;285:S261.","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"544_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1262","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2008.01809.x","volume":"50","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK, Angwafor SA, Jallon P, Muna WFT. Secondary school students\u2019 knowledge, attitudes, and practice toward epilepsy in the Batibo Health District, Cameroon. Epilepsia. 2009;50:1262\u20135.","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"544_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2009.07.026","volume":"16","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK, Yepnjio FN, Bissek AC, Tabah EN, Ongolo-Zogo P, Dema F, et al. A survey of public knowledge, attitudes, and practices with respect to epilepsy in Badissa Village, Centre region of Cameroon. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;16:254\u20139.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2013.11.010","volume":"108","author":"C Osakwe","year":"2014","unstructured":"Osakwe C, Otte WM, Alo C. Epilepsy prevalence, potential causes and social beliefs in Ebonyi state and Benue state, Nigeria. Epilepsy Res. 2014;108:316\u201326.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Res"},{"key":"544_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2017.11.016","volume":"54","author":"J Goodall","year":"2018","unstructured":"Goodall J, Salem S, Walker RW, Gray WK, Burton K, Hunter E, et al. Stigma and functional disability in relation to marriage and employment in young people with epilepsy in rural Tanzania. Seizure. 2018;54:27\u201332.","journal-title":"Seizure."},{"key":"544_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-510X(02)00467-7","volume":"209","author":"GL Birbeck","year":"2003","unstructured":"Birbeck GL, Kalichi EMN. The functional status of people with epilepsy in rural sub-Saharan Africa. J Neurol Sci. 2003;209:65\u20138.","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"544_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2167","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2009.02057.x","volume":"50","author":"AK Njamnshi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Njamnshi AK. Nonphysician management of epilepsy in resource-limited contexts: roles and responsibilities. Epilepsia. United States. 2009;50:2167\u20138.","journal-title":"Epilepsia. United States"},{"key":"544_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-018-0452-1","volume":"7","author":"E Lenaerts","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lenaerts E, Mandro M, Mukendi D, Suykerbuyk P, Dolo H, Wonya\u2019Rossi D, et al. High prevalence of epilepsy in onchocerciasis endemic health areas in Democratic Republic of the Congo. Infect Dis Poverty. 2018;7:1\u201314.","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty."},{"key":"544_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21395","DOI":"10.7448\/IAS.20.1.21395","volume":"20","author":"BT Chan","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chan BT, Tsai AC. Personal contact with HIV-positive persons is associated with reduced HIV-related stigma: cross-sectional analysis of general population surveys from 26 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. J Int AIDS Soc. 2017;20:21395.","journal-title":"J Int AIDS Soc"},{"key":"544_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2013.01.005","volume":"27","author":"MA Elafros","year":"2013","unstructured":"Elafros MA, Mulenga J, Mbewe E, Haworth A, Chomba E, Atadzhanov M, et al. Peer support groups as an intervention to decrease epilepsy-associated stigma. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;27:188\u201392.","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav"},{"key":"544_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-018-0450-3","volume":"7","author":"BP Mmbando","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mmbando BP, Suykerbuyk P, Mnacho M, Kakorozya A, Matuja W, Hendy A, et al. High prevalence of epilepsy in two rural onchocerciasis endemic villages in the Mahenge area, Tanzania, after 20 years of community directed treatment with ivermectin. Infect Dis Poverty. 2018;7:1\u201313.","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty."}],"container-title":["Infectious Diseases of Poverty"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40249-019-0544-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40249-019-0544-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40249-019-0544-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,18]],"date-time":"2020-05-18T23:16:59Z","timestamp":1589843819000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/idpjournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s40249-019-0544-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["544"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40249-019-0544-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2049-9957"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2049-9957","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"6 December 2018","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 April 2019","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"20 May 2019","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"34"}}