{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]],"date-time":"2025-04-17T14:11:01Z","timestamp":1744899061911,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]],"date-time":"2021-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615939200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]],"date-time":"2021-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615939200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Infect Dis Poverty"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has put a strain on health systems globally. Although Africa is the least affected region to date, it has the weakest health systems and an exponential rise in cases as has been observed in other regions, is bound to overwhelm its health systems. Early detection and isolation of suspected and confirmed COVID-19 cases are pivotal to the prevention and control of the pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that all laboratory-confirmed cases should be isolated and treated in a health care facility; however, where this is not possible due to the health system capacity, patients can be isolated in re-purposed facilities or at home. An already very apparent future challenge for Africa is facility-based isolation of COVID-19 cases, given the already limited health infrastructure and health workforce, and the risk of nosocomial transmission. Use of repurposed facilities requires additional resources, including health workers. Home isolation, on the other hand, would be a challenge given the poor housing, overcrowding, inadequate access to water and sanitation, and stigma related to infectious disease that is prevalent in many African societies. Conflict settings on the continent pose an additional challenge to the prevention and control of COVID-19 with the resultant population displacements in overcrowded camps where access to social services is limited. These unique cultural, social, economic and developmental differences on the continent, call for a tailored approach to COVID-19 case management strategies. This article proposes three broad case management strategies based on the transmission scenarios defined by WHO, and the criteria and package of care for each option, for consideration by policy makers and governments in African countries. Moving forward, African countries should generate local evidence to guide the development of realistic home-grown strategies, protocol and equipment for the management of COVID-19 cases on the continent \"Image missing\".<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-021-00795-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]],"date-time":"2021-03-17T18:03:00Z","timestamp":1616004180000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["COVID-19 case management strategies: what are the options for Africa?"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0220-7120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joy Luba Lomole","family":"Waya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Ameh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joseph Lou K.","family":"Mogga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joseph F.","family":"Wamala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Olushayo Oluseun","family":"Olu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"795_CR1","unstructured":"World Health Organization: COVID-19 Weekly Epidemiological Update. 2020. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/m\/item\/weekly-epidemiological-update---22-december-2020. Accessed 23 Dec 2020."},{"issue":"10227","key":"795_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30411-6","volume":"395","author":"M Gilbert","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gilbert M, Pullano G, Pinotti F, Valdano E, Poletto C, Bo\u00eblle PY, et al. Preparedness and vulnerability of African countries against importations of COVID-19: a modelling study. Lancet. 2020;395(10227):871\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30411-6.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"16","key":"795_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2132","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa629","volume":"71","author":"Y Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang Y, Tong J, Qin Y, Xie T, Li J, Li J, et al. Characterization of an asymptomatic cohort of SARS-COV-2 infected individuals outside of Wuhan. China Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2132\u20138.","journal-title":"China Clin Infect Dis"},{"issue":"14","key":"795_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6914e1","volume":"69","author":"WE Wei","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wei WE, Li Z, Chiew CJ, Yong SE, Toh MP, Lee VJ. Presymptomatic transmission of SARS-CoV-2\u2014Singapore, January 23\u2013March 16, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(14):411\u20135.","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"issue":"5","key":"795_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0869-5","volume":"26","author":"X He","year":"2020","unstructured":"He X, Lau EHY, Wu P, Deng X, Wang J, Hao X, et al. Temporal dynamics in viral shedding and transmissibility of COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(5):672\u20135.","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"795_CR6","unstructured":"World Health Organization: Home care for patients with suspected novel coronavirus (nCoV) infection presenting with mild symptoms and management of contacts. Interim Guidance. 17 March 2020. https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications-detail\/home-care-for-patients-with-suspected-novel-coronavirus-(ncov)-infection-presenting-with-mild-symptoms-and-management-of-contacts. Accessed 01 May 2020."},{"key":"795_CR7","unstructured":"Center for Disease Control and Prevention: interim guidance for implementing home care of people not requiring hospitalization for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Updated February 12, 2020. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/coronavirus\/2019-ncov\/hcp\/guidance-home-care.html. Accessed 01 May 2020."},{"issue":"1","key":"795_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.4102\/phcfm.v12i1.2480","volume":"12","author":"J Nyasulu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nyasulu J, Pandya H. The effects of coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic on the South African health system: a call to maintain essential health services. Afr J Prim Health Care Fam Med. 2020;12(1):e1\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4102\/phcfm.v12i1.2480.","journal-title":"Afr J Prim Health Care Fam Med"},{"issue":"25","key":"795_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES2015.20.25.21163","volume":"20","author":"BJ Cowling","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cowling BJ, Park M, Fang VJ, Wu P, Leung GM, Wu JT. Preliminary epidemiological assessment of MERS-CoV outbreak in South Korea, May to June 2015. Euro Surveil. 2015;20(25):7\u201313.","journal-title":"Euro Surveil"},{"key":"795_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.47102\/annals-acadmedsg.V35N5p301","volume":"35","author":"KT Goh","year":"2006","unstructured":"Goh KT, Cutter J, Heng BH, Ma S, Koh BK, Kwok C, et al. Epidemiology and control of SARS in Singapore. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2006;35:301\u201316.","journal-title":"Ann Acad Med Singapore"},{"issue":"4","key":"795_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e488","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(20)30074-7","volume":"8","author":"J Hellewell","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hellewell J, Abbott S, Gimma A, Bosse NI, Jarvis CI, Russell TW, et al. Feasibility of controlling COVID-19 outbreaks by isolation of cases and contacts. Lancet Glob Health. 2020;8(4):e488\u201396. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2214-109X(20)30074-7.","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"issue":"10232","key":"795_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30744-3","volume":"395","author":"S Chen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chen S, Zhang Z, Yang J, Wang J, Zhai X, B\u00e4rnighausen T, et al. Fangcang shelter hospitals: a novel concept for responding to public health emergencies. Lancet. 2020;395(10232):1305\u201314. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30744-3.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"1","key":"795_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.03.040","volume":"81","author":"Z Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang Z, Ma W, Zheng X, Wu G, Zhang R. Household transmission of SARS-CoV-2. J Infect. 2020;81(1):179\u201382.","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"key":"795_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2020.00382","author":"M Bodas","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bodas M, Peleg K. Self-isolation compliance in the COVID-19 era influenced by compensation: findings from a recent survey in Israel. A cross sectional study of the adult population of Israel to assess public attitudes toward the COVID-19 outbreak and self-isolation. Health Aff (Millwood). 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1377\/hlthaff.2020.00382.","journal-title":"Health Aff (Millwood)"},{"key":"795_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31016-3","author":"BL Dickens","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dickens BL, Koo JR, Wilder-Smith A, Cook AR. Institutional, not home-based, isolation could contain the COVID-19 outbreak. Lancet. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31016-3.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"6","key":"795_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2000544","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00544-2020","volume":"55","author":"X Wang","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wang X, Zhou Q, He Y, Liu L, Ma X, Wei X, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Eur Respir J. 2020;55(6):2000544. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1183\/13993003.00544-2020.","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"issue":"2","key":"795_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.04.034","volume":"81","author":"G Ye","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ye G, Lin H, Chen S, Wang S, Zeng Z, Wang W, et al. Environmental contamination of SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare premises. J Infect. 2020;81(2):e1\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.04.034.","journal-title":"J Infect"},{"key":"795_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chia PY, Coleman KK, Tan YK, Ong SWX, Gum M, Lau SK, et al. Detection of air and surface contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in hospital rooms of infected patients. Nat Comm. 2020;11(1):2800. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-020-16670-2.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-16670-2"},{"issue":"5","key":"795_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2020.58","volume":"41","author":"VCC Cheng","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cheng VCC, Wong SC, Chen JHK, Yip CCY, Chuang VWM, Tsang OTY, et al. Escalating infection control response to the rapidly evolving epidemiology of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) due to SARS-CoV-2 in Hong Kong. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41(5):493\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/ice.2020.58.","journal-title":"Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol"},{"issue":"8","key":"795_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2020.05.018","volume":"48","author":"VCC Cheng","year":"2020","unstructured":"Cheng VCC, Wong SC, Chuang VWM, So SYC, Chen JHK, Sridhar S, et al. Absence of nosocomial transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) due to SARS-CoV-2 in the prepandemic phase in Hong Kong. Am J Infect Control. 2020;48(8):890\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ajic.2020.05.018.","journal-title":"Am J Infect Control"},{"key":"795_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.2648","author":"Z Wu","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.2020.2648.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"795_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.2342","author":"G MacLaren","year":"2020","unstructured":"MacLaren G, Fisher D, Brodie D. Preparing for the most critically ill patients with COVID-19: the potential role of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. JAMA. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.2020.2342.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"795_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30161-2","author":"J Phua","year":"2020","unstructured":"Phua J, Weng L, Ling L, Egi M, Lim CM, Divatia JV, et al. Intensive care management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): challenges and recommendations. Lancet Respir Med. 2020. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30161-2.","journal-title":"Lancet Respir Med."},{"key":"795_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christensen D, Dube O, Haushofer J, Siddiqi B, Voors M. Community-based crisis response: evidence from Sierra Leone\u2019s Ebola outbreak. March 6, 2020. https:\/\/darinchristensen.com\/publication\/ebola-ccc\/. Accessed 01 May 2020.","DOI":"10.1257\/pandp.20201015"},{"issue":"3","key":"795_CR25","first-page":"67","volume":"64","author":"ML Washington","year":"2015","unstructured":"Washington ML, Meltzer ML. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Effectiveness of Ebola treatment units and community care centers\u2014Liberia. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(3):67\u20139.","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep."},{"issue":"Supp 1","key":"795_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.11604\/pamj.supp.2015.22.1.6521","volume":"22","author":"O Olu","year":"2015","unstructured":"Olu O, Cormican M, Kamara K-B, Butt W. Community Care Centre (CCC) as adjunct in the management of Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) cases during outbreaks: experience from Sierra Leone. Pan Afr Med J. 2015;22(Supp 1):14.","journal-title":"Pan Afr Med J"},{"key":"795_CR27","unstructured":"Dibie IM. COVID-19: Minister inspects new isolation centre in Abuja. 2020. https:\/\/www.africanews.com\/2020\/04\/08\/covid-19-minister-inspected-new-isolation-centre-in-abuja\/\/. Accessed 01 May 2020."},{"key":"795_CR28","unstructured":"Ministry of Health Republic of South Sudan. COVID-19 Clinical Care Management Guideline for South Sudan. 2020."},{"key":"795_CR29","unstructured":"Ministry of Health Republic of South Sudan. South Sudan Service Availability and readiness assessment 2018 summary report. 2020. https:\/\/www.dropbox.com\/s\/20b4g9we7f6z43t\/Final%20SSD-SARA-report_17%20March%202020.docx?dl=0."}],"container-title":["Infectious Diseases of Poverty"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40249-021-00795-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40249-021-00795-7\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40249-021-00795-7.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,23]],"date-time":"2023-10-23T09:11:37Z","timestamp":1698052297000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/idpjournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s40249-021-00795-7"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["795"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40249-021-00795-7","relation":{},"ISSN":["2049-9957"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2049-9957"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"9 May 2020","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 January 2021","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 March 2021","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"None declared.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"30"}}