{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T22:47:18Z","timestamp":1793832438422,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658707200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658707200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RO1MH110192"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RO1MH110192"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RO1MH110192"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RO1MH110192"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000062","name":"National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["5 T35 DK 104689-5"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5 T35 DK 104689-5"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Health Justice"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Despite the limitations the carceral environment may impose on mental wellness, mental healthcare is increasingly becoming a carceral endeavor. Over the course of the last several decades, prisons and jails have become the de facto mental healthcare provider for thousands of incarcerated individuals. Furthermore, practices like mandated mental healthcare for supervised individuals further broaden the population experiencing mental healthcare within the criminal legal system at large. This study examines the perspectives of nine individuals who experienced mental healthcare within the carceral state, whether in prison or on parole or probation, with a special focus on how attributes of the carceral state create ideological and functional barriers to effective mental healthcare.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Data for the parent study of this analysis was collected via in-depth, one-on-one interviews of about one hour\u2019s length, conducted at six-month intervals over the course of 2 years. These interviews were analyzed using an iterative process of open-coding, thematic code development, and code application to participant interviews.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The results showed a common perception of mental healthcare received within the carceral state as serving goals of the prison system, including control and punishment, rather than therapeutic goals of healing and empowerment. This often had negative implications for the quality of the treatment received, including patterns of diagnostic ambiguity, treatment that was ill-fitting to participants\u2019 needs, and treatment that was undermined by the new trauma created by the prison environment. The results also highlighted racial disparities prevalent within the carceral system. Despite the barriers created by the subjection of therapeutic practices to carceral goals, participants demonstrated resourcefulness and creativity in engaging with these treatment modalities to reap benefits where possible.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>Overall, these results highlight the inappropriateness of combining therapeutic and carceral spaces, the need for greater public attention to how carceral mechanisms disadvantage vulnerable populations, and the need for a cultural reconceptualization of mental illness such that it is met not with criminal punishment but appropriate care.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40352-022-00183-9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T12:04:25Z","timestamp":1658750665000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["\u201cI was reaching out for help and they did not help me\u201d: Mental healthcare in the carceral state"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6075-5638","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna G.","family":"Preston","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alana","family":"Rosenberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Penelope","family":"Schlesinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kim M.","family":"Blankenship","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"183_CR1","unstructured":"Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: The New Press."},{"key":"183_CR2","unstructured":"American Mental Wellness Association (AMWA) (n.d.). Talk therapy. AMWA. Retrieved March 2021 from https:\/\/www.americanmentalwellness.org\/intervention\/talk-therapy\/."},{"issue":"8","key":"183_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201900429","volume":"71","author":"O Appel","year":"2020","unstructured":"Appel, O., Stephens, D., Shadravan, S. M., Key, J., & Ochoa, K. (2020). Differential incarceration by race-ethnicity and mental health service status in the Los Angeles County jail system. Psychiatric services (Washington, D.C.), 71(8), 843\u2013846. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/appi.ps.201900429.","journal-title":"Psychiatric services (Washington, D.C.)"},{"issue":"2","key":"183_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s10461-021-03240-w","volume":"25","author":"C Barrington","year":"2021","unstructured":"Barrington, C., Rosenberg, A., Kerrigan, D., & Blankenship, K. M. (2021). Probing the processes: Longitudinal qualitative research on social determinants of HIV. AIDS and Behavior, 25(2), 203\u2013213. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10461-021-03240-w.","journal-title":"AIDS and Behavior"},{"key":"183_CR5","volume-title":"Q&A: A look at the issue of mentally ill inmates in jails. AP News","author":"S Cohen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Cohen, S. (2019). Q&A: A look at the issue of mentally ill inmates in jails. AP News. https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/80e66f6c0f7d4c69937a3b7e20942a30."},{"key":"183_CR6","volume-title":"Correctional institutions or institutions for the mentally ill? Governments seek new solutions. Connecticut By the Numbers","author":"Connecticut By the Numbers","year":"2015","unstructured":"Connecticut By the Numbers. (2015). Correctional institutions or institutions for the mentally ill? Governments seek new solutions. Connecticut By the Numbers. https:\/\/ctbythenumbers.news\/ctnews\/2015\/08\/04\/correctional-institutions-or-institutions-for-the-mentally-ill-governments-seek-new-solutions"},{"key":"183_CR7","volume-title":"Annual Report. CT Department of Corrections","author":"Connecticut Department of Correction","year":"2015","unstructured":"Connecticut Department of Correction. (2015). Annual Report. CT Department of Corrections. Retrieved on March 2021 from https:\/\/portal.ct.gov\/-\/media\/DOC\/Pdf\/PDFReport\/AnnualReport2015pdf.pdf."},{"key":"183_CR8","volume-title":"Average confined inmate population and legal status. CT Department of Correction","author":"Connecticut Department of Correction","year":"2021","unstructured":"Connecticut Department of Correction. (2021). Average confined inmate population and legal status. CT Department of Correction. Retrieved March 2021 from https:\/\/portal.ct.gov\/-\/media\/DOC\/Pdf\/MonthlyStat\/Stat03012021.pdf."},{"key":"183_CR9","unstructured":"Connecticut Department of Correction. (n.d.-a). Garner Correctional Institution. CT Department of Corrections. Retrieved Feb 2021 from https:\/\/portal.ct.gov\/DOC\/Facility\/Garner-CI."},{"key":"183_CR10","unstructured":"Connecticut Department of Correction. (n.d.-b) History of the Connecticut Department of Correction: 1968-2006. CT Department of Correction. Retrieved Feb 2021 from https:\/\/portal.ct.gov\/DOC\/History\/History-Department-of-Correction."},{"key":"183_CR11","unstructured":"Connecticut Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services. (n.d.) About DMHAS. DMHAS. Retrieved Feb 2021 from https:\/\/portal.ct.gov\/DMHAS\/About-DMHAS\/Agency\/About-DMHAS."},{"key":"183_CR12","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Cengage Learning","author":"G Corey","year":"2016","unstructured":"Corey, G. (2016). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Cengage Learning, (pp. 1\u201315)."},{"key":"183_CR13","volume-title":"BOP statistics: Inmate race. Federal Bureau of Prisons","author":"Federal Bureau of Prisons","year":"2021","unstructured":"Federal Bureau of Prisons. (2021). BOP statistics: Inmate race. Federal Bureau of Prisons. Retrieved March 2021 from https:\/\/www.bop.gov\/about\/statistics\/statistics_inmate_race.jsp."},{"issue":"5","key":"183_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1007\/s10488-006-0072-0","volume":"33","author":"WH Fisher","year":"2006","unstructured":"Fisher, W. H., Silver, E., & Wolff, N. (2006). Beyond criminalization: Toward a Criminologically informed framework for mental health policy and services research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 33(5), 544\u2013557. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10488-006-0072-0.","journal-title":"Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research"},{"key":"183_CR15","volume-title":"Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison","author":"M Foucault","year":"1975","unstructured":"Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Editions Gallimard."},{"issue":"1","key":"183_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s11013-012-9295-6","volume":"37","author":"JD Galanek","year":"2013","unstructured":"Galanek, J. D. (2013). The cultural construction of mental illness in prison: A perfect storm of pathology. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 37(1), 195\u2013225. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11013-012-9295-6.","journal-title":"Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"183_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1747-4469.2009.01152.x","volume":"34","author":"M Gottschalk","year":"2009","unstructured":"Gottschalk, M. (2009). The long reach of the Carceral state: The politics of crime, mass imprisonment, and penal reform in the United States and abroad. Law & Social Inquiry, 34(2), 439\u2013472. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1747-4469.2009.01152.x.","journal-title":"Law & Social Inquiry"},{"issue":"1","key":"183_CR18","first-page":"325","volume":"22","author":"S Grassian","year":"2006","unstructured":"Grassian, S. (2006). Psychiatric effects of solitary confinement. Washington University Journal of Law and Policy, 22(1), 325\u2013383.","journal-title":"Washington University Journal of Law and Policy"},{"key":"183_CR19","volume-title":"Most Inmates with Mental Illness Still Wait for Decent Care. NPR","author":"C Herman","year":"2019","unstructured":"Herman, C. (2019). Most Inmates with Mental Illness Still Wait for Decent Care. NPR. https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/health-shots\/2019\/02\/03\/690872394\/most-inmates-with-mental-illness-still-wait-for-decent-care"},{"key":"183_CR20","volume-title":"Probation and parole in the United States, 2016. U.S. Department of Justice","author":"D Kaeble","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kaeble, D. (2018). Probation and parole in the United States, 2016. U.S. Department of Justice. https:\/\/bjs.ojp.gov\/content\/pub\/pdf\/ppus16.pdf"},{"issue":"4","key":"183_CR21","first-page":"529","volume":"33","author":"HR Lamb","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lamb, H. R., & Weinberger, L. E. (2005). The shift of psychiatric inpatient care from hospitals to jails and prisons. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 33(4), 529\u2013534.","journal-title":"The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law"},{"key":"183_CR22","volume-title":"The color of justice: Racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. The Sentencing Project","author":"A Nellis","year":"2016","unstructured":"Nellis, A. (2016). The color of justice: Racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. The Sentencing Project. https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/color-of-justice-racial-and-ethnic-disparity-in-state-prisons\/#II.%20Overall%20Findings"},{"key":"183_CR23","volume-title":"NVivo (Version 12)","author":"QSR International Pty Ltd","year":"2018","unstructured":"QSR International Pty Ltd. (2018). NVivo (Version 12). https:\/\/www.qsrinternational.com\/nvivo-qualitative-data-analysis-software\/home"},{"issue":"12","key":"183_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2328","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302043","volume":"104","author":"JM Reingle Gonzalez","year":"2014","unstructured":"Reingle Gonzalez, J. M., & Connell, N. M. (2014). Mental health of prisoners: Identifying barriers to mental health treatment and medication continuity. American Journal of Public Health, 104(12), 2328\u20132333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302043.","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"183_CR25","volume-title":"A Prison by Any Other Name: The Harmful Consequences of Popular Reforms","author":"M Schenwar","year":"2020","unstructured":"Schenwar, M., & Law, V. (2020). A Prison by Any Other Name: The Harmful Consequences of Popular Reforms. New York: The New Press."},{"issue":"3","key":"183_CR26","first-page":"1053","volume":"62","author":"GL Sims","year":"2009","unstructured":"Sims, G. L. (2009). The criminalization of mental illness: How theoretical failures create real problems in the criminal justice system. Vanderbilt Law Review, 62(3), 1053\u20131083.","journal-title":"Vanderbilt Law Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"183_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854805284420","volume":"33","author":"JL Skeem","year":"2006","unstructured":"Skeem, J. L., Emke-Francis, P., & Louden, J. E. (2006). Probation, mental health, and mandated treatment, a National Survey. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33(2), 158\u2013184. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0093854805284420.","journal-title":"Criminal Justice and Behavior"},{"issue":"4","key":"183_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1002\/bsl.547","volume":"21","author":"JL Skeem","year":"2003","unstructured":"Skeem, J. L., Encandela, J., & Louden, J. E. (2003). Perspectives on probation and mandated mental health treatment in specialized and traditional probation departments. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21(4), 429\u2013458. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/bsl.547.","journal-title":"Behavioral Sciences & the Law"},{"key":"183_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5749\/j.ctvdjrphr","volume-title":"Prison Land: Mapping Carceral Power across Neoliberal America","author":"B Story","year":"2019","unstructured":"Story, B. (2019). Prison Land: Mapping Carceral Power across Neoliberal America. University of Minnesota Press. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5749\/j.ctvdjrphr."},{"key":"183_CR30","volume-title":"The counted: People killed by the police in the U.S. the Guardian","author":"The Guardian","year":"2015","unstructured":"The Guardian. (2015). The counted: People killed by the police in the U.S. the Guardian. https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/us-news\/ng-interactive\/2015\/jun\/01\/the-counted-police-killings-us-database."},{"key":"183_CR31","volume-title":"More mentally ill persons are in jails and prisons than hospitals: A survey of the states","author":"EF Torrey","year":"2010","unstructured":"Torrey, E. F., Kennard, A. D., Eslinger, D., Lamb, H. R., & Pavle, J. (2010). More mentally ill persons are in jails and prisons than hospitals: A survey of the states. Treatment Advocacy Center and National Sheriffs Association. https:\/\/knox.oh.networkofcare.org\/library\/final_jails_v_hospitals_study.pdf."},{"key":"183_CR32","volume-title":"The treatment of persons with mental illness in prisons and jails: A state survey","author":"EF Torrey","year":"2014","unstructured":"Torrey, E. F., Zdanowicz, M. T., Kennard, A. D., Lamb, H. R., Eslinger, D. F., Biasotti, M. C., & Fuller, D. A. (2014). The treatment of persons with mental illness in prisons and jails: A state survey. Treatment Advocacy Center. https:\/\/www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org\/storage\/documents\/treatment-behind-bars\/treatment-behind-bars.pdf."},{"key":"183_CR33","volume-title":"QuickFacts. U.S. Census Bureau","author":"United States Census Bureau","year":"2021","unstructured":"United States Census Bureau. (2021). QuickFacts. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved March 2021 from https:\/\/www.census.gov\/quickfacts\/fact\/table\/US\/IPE120219."},{"key":"183_CR34","unstructured":"U.S. Courts (n.d.). Chapter 3: Mental health treatment (probation and supervised release conditions). U.S. Courts. Retrieved March 2021 from https:\/\/www.uscourts.gov\/services-forms\/mental-health-treatment-probation-supervised-release-conditions."}],"container-title":["Health &amp; Justice"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40352-022-00183-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40352-022-00183-9\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40352-022-00183-9.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T12:05:10Z","timestamp":1658750710000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/healthandjusticejournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s40352-022-00183-9"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["183"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40352-022-00183-9","relation":{},"ISSN":["2194-7899"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2194-7899","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]]},"assertion":[{"value":"25 January 2022","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 May 2022","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 July 2022","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Study procedures were reviewed and approved by the Yale University Institutional Review Board (IRB protocol number 1609018355). Research staff reviewed the risks and benefits of participation with each participant, and participants provided written consent to participate in this study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and informed consent"}},{"value":"The written consent provided by each participant included the possibility for the publication of de-identified data. This manuscript does not include any individual data associated with identifying information. Additionally, participants were reminded of the potential for publication by interviewers when they were asked to choose a pseudonym for use in final publications.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"23"}}