{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T02:43:19Z","timestamp":1787020999128,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]],"date-time":"2024-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734566400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]],"date-time":"2024-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734566400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Health Justice"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>US chiefs of police hold significant influence over the perceived acceptability and appropriateness of interventions for opioid use disorder (OUD) among the public, elected officials, and subordinate officers. This study assessed whether police chiefs\u2019 support for such interventions was sensitive to framing an intervention\u2019s benefits in terms that emphasize public health and harm reduction outcomes, versus terms typically indicative of public safety outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A two-armed survey utilizing a randomized, between-subjects design tested framing-based variance in support among US chiefs of police for overdose prevention centers, syringe service programs (SSPs), Good Samaritan laws, police naloxone distribution, trustworthiness of officers in recovery from OUD, and related propositions. Of 1,200 invitations, 276 chiefs participated (23%). The two experimental arms (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009133,\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009143) were demographically balanced between both each other and non-respondents.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Chiefs were more likely to agree that their mission was protecting public safety than protecting public health, even when both were defined using public health outcomes. Chiefs expressed significantly greater support for \u201coverdose prevention sites\u201d than \u201csafe injection sites\u201d (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009.018), low levels of support for SSPs regardless of framing (18% safety; 19% health), and comparably more support for Good Samaritan laws based on framing (62% safety vs. 54% health). Respondents voiced low levels of trust in officers recovering from OUD generally (31%), and significantly lower levels of trust when recovery involved the medication buprenorphine (10%;\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u2009.001). Senior chiefs were significantly more likely to support SSPs (aOR 1.05; CI 1.01, 1.09) and overdose prevention sites (aOR 2.45; CI 1.13, 5.28) than less senior chiefs.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In this cross-sectional survey experiment, support for some interventions for OUD was greater among US chiefs of police when framed to emphasize positive public safety outcomes. Research is required to better understand low support for SSPs, mistrust of officers in recovery for OUD, and greater support for OUD interventions among senior chiefs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40352-024-00306-4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]],"date-time":"2024-12-19T09:55:27Z","timestamp":1734602127000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["The effects of message framing on US police chiefs\u2019 support for interventions for opioid use disorder: a randomized survey experiment"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Brandon","family":"del Pozo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saba","family":"Rouhani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amelia","family":"Bailey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. H.","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaitlin F.","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatema Z.","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danielle","family":"Atkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Andraka-Christou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"306_CR1","unstructured":"Ahmad, F., Cisewski, JA, Rossen, LM, Sutton, P,. (2023). Provisional drug overdose death counts. National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved September 29 from https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/nvss\/vsrr\/drug-overdose-data.htm"},{"issue":"6","key":"306_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2021.306702","volume":"112","author":"P Baker","year":"2022","unstructured":"Baker, P., Beletsky, L., Garfein, R., Pitpitan, E., Oren, E., Strathdee, S. A., & Cepeda, J. A. (2022). Impact of SHIELD police training on knowledge of syringe possession laws and related arrests in Tijuana,\u00a0Mexico. American Journal of Public Health, 112(6), 860\u2013864. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.2021.306702","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"306_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2018.304588","volume":"108","author":"CL Barry","year":"2018","unstructured":"Barry, C. L., Sherman, S. G., & McGinty, E. E. (2018a). Language matters in combatting the opioid epidemic: Safe consumption sites versus overdose prevention sites. American Journal of Public Health, 108(9), 1157\u20131159. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.2018.304588","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"306_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2015.302681","volume":"105","author":"L Beletsky","year":"2015","unstructured":"Beletsky, L., Cochrane, J., Sawyer, A. L., Serio-Chapman, C., Smelyanskaya, M., Han, J., Robinowitz, N., & Sherman, S. G. (2015). Police encounters among needle exchange clients in Baltimore: Drug law enforcement as a structural determinant of health. American Journal of Public Health, 105(9), 1872\u20131879. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.2015.302681","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"issue":"9","key":"306_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1907875","volume":"381","author":"L Beletsky","year":"2019","unstructured":"Beletsky, L., Wakeman, S. E., & Fiscella, K. (2019). Practicing what we preach \u2014 Ending physician health program bans on opioid-agonist therapy. New England Journal of Medicine, 381(9), 796\u2013798. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMp1907875","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"306_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.108257","volume":"217","author":"JJ Carroll","year":"2020","unstructured":"Carroll, J. J., Mital, S., Wolff, J., Noonan, R. K., Martinez, P., Podolsky, M. C., Killorin, J. C., & Green, T. C. (2020). Knowledge, preparedness, and compassion fatigue among law enforcement officers who respond to opioid overdose. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 217, 108257. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.108257","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"},{"issue":"11","key":"306_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.42228","volume":"6","author":"A Chalfin","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chalfin, A., Del Pozo, B., & Mitre-Becerril, D. (2023). Overdose prevention centers, crime, and disorder in New York City. JAMA Network Open, 6(11), e2342228. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.42228","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"key":"306_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2019.07.005","volume":"104","author":"HD Chilcoat","year":"2019","unstructured":"Chilcoat, H. D., Amick, H. R., Sherwood, M. R., & Dunn, K. E. (2019). Buprenorphine in the United States: Motives for abuse, misuse, and diversion. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 104, 148\u2013157. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jsat.2019.07.005","journal-title":"Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment"},{"key":"306_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Compton MT., Broussard, B., Reed, T. A., Crisafio, A., & Watson, A. C. (2015). Surveys of Police Chiefs and Sheriffs and of Police Officers About CIT Programs. Psychiatric Services, 66(7), 760\u2013763. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/appi.ps.201300451","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201300451"},{"issue":"9","key":"306_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2022.306987","volume":"112","author":"B del Pozo","year":"2022","unstructured":"del Pozo, B. (2022). Reducing the iatrogenesis of police overdose response: time is of the essence. American Journal of Public Health, 112(9), 1236\u20131238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.2022.306987","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"306_CR11","unstructured":"del Pozo, B. (2024). Why the drug reform movement looks like it's failing. The Boston Globe. Ideas section. Accessed September 10, 2024. https:\/\/www.bostonglobe.com\/2024\/04\/25\/opinion\/oregon-drug-decriminalization-what-reformers-missed\/"},{"key":"306_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dadr.2023.100131","volume":"6","author":"B del Pozo","year":"2023","unstructured":"del Pozo, B., Atkins, D., Andraka-Christou, B., Wightman, R., Clark, M. H., Huynh, P., & Ray, B. (2023). Buprenorphine involvement in opioid overdose deaths: A retrospective analysis of postmortem toxicology in Marion County, Indiana, 2015\u20132021. Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports, 6, 100131. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.dadr.2023.100131","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports"},{"issue":"4","key":"306_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1080\/15265161.2021.1891339","volume":"21","author":"B del Pozo","year":"2021","unstructured":"del Pozo, B., Goulka, J., Beletsky, L., & Kleinig, J. (2021). Beyond decriminalization: Ending the war on drugs requires recasting police discretion through the lens of a public health ethic. The American Journal of Bioethics, 21(4), 41. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15265161.2021.1891339","journal-title":"The American Journal of Bioethics"},{"key":"306_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"del Pozo, B., Reichert, J., Martins, K., & Taylor, B. (2023). Police use of discretion in encounters with people with opioid use disorder: A study of Illinois police officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11896-023-09628-9","DOI":"10.1007\/s11896-023-09628-9"},{"key":"306_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"del Pozo, B., Rouhani, S., Clark, M. H., Atkins, D., Andraka-Christou, B., & Martins, K. F. (2024). Understaffed and beleaguered: a national survey of chiefs of police about the post-George Floyd era. Policing: An International Journal, ahead of- print (ahead-of-print). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/PIJPSM-12-2023-0171","DOI":"10.1108\/PIJPSM-12-2023-0171"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-021-00583-4","volume":"18","author":"B del Pozo","year":"2021","unstructured":"del Pozo, B., Sightes, E., Goulka, J., Ray, B., Wood, C. A., Siddiqui, S., & Beletsky, L. A. (2021b). Police discretion in encounters with people who use drugs: Operationalizing the theory of planned behavior. Harm Reduction Journal, 18(1), 132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12954-021-00583-4","journal-title":"Harm Reduction Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-017-4210-2","volume":"17","author":"RM Fernandes","year":"2017","unstructured":"Fernandes, R. M., Cary, M., Duarte, G., Jesus, G., Alarc\u00e3o, J., Torre, C., Costa, S., Costa, J., & Carneiro, A. V. (2017). Effectiveness of needle and syringe Programmes in people who inject drugs - An overview of systematic reviews. BMC Public Health, 17(1), 309. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-017-4210-2","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-022-00688-4","volume":"19","author":"MR Filteau","year":"2022","unstructured":"Filteau, M. R., Green, B., Kim, F., & McBride, K. A. (2022). \u201cIt\u2019s the same thing as giving them CPR training\u201d: Rural first responders\u2019 perspectives on naloxone. Harm Reduction Journal, 19(1), 111. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12954-022-00688-4","journal-title":"Harm Reduction Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.35502\/jcswb.184","volume":"6","author":"J Goulka","year":"2021","unstructured":"Goulka, J., del Pozo, B., & Beletsky, L. (2021). From public safety to public health: Re-envisioning the goals and methods of policing. Journal of Community Safety & Well-Being, 6(1), 22\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.35502\/jcswb.184","journal-title":"Journal of Community Safety & Well-Being"},{"issue":"2","key":"306_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2013.08.018","volume":"133","author":"TC Green","year":"2013","unstructured":"Green, T. C., Zaller, N., Palacios, W. R., Bowman, S. E., Ray, M., Heimer, R., & Case, P. (2013). Law enforcement attitudes toward overdose prevention and response. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 133(2), 677\u2013684. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2013.08.018","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/s12961-020-00596-8","volume":"18","author":"MS Jalali","year":"2020","unstructured":"Jalali, M. S., Botticelli, M., Hwang, R. C., Koh, H. K., & McHugh, R. K. (2020). The opioid crisis: A contextual, social-ecological framework. Health Res Policy Syst, 18(1), 87. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12961-020-00596-8","journal-title":"Health Res Policy Syst"},{"issue":"8","key":"306_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2327488","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.27488","volume":"6","author":"CM Jones","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jones, C. M., Han, B., Baldwin, G. T., Einstein, E. B., & Compton, W. M. (2023). Use of medication for opioid use disorder among adults with past-year opioid use disorder in the US, 2021. JAMA Network Open, 6(8), e2327488. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.27488","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"issue":"5","key":"306_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201600056","volume":"68","author":"A Kennedy-Hendricks","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kennedy-Hendricks, A., Barry, C. L., Gollust, S. E., Ensminger, M. E., Chisolm, M. S., & McGinty, E. E. (2017). Social stigma toward persons with prescription opioid use disorder: Associations with public support for punitive and public health-oriented policies. Psychiatric Services (Washington, d. c.), 68(5), 462\u2013469. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/appi.ps.201600056","journal-title":"Psychiatric Services (Washington, d. c.)"},{"key":"306_CR24","unstructured":"Kim, T. (2024). A drug decriminalization fight erupts in Oregon. The New Yorker. https:\/\/www.newyorker.com\/magazine\/2024\/01\/22\/a-new-drug-war-in-oregon"},{"key":"306_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Korre, M., Farioli, A., Varvarigou, V., Sato, S., & Kales, S. N. (2014). A survey of stress levels and time spent across law enforcement duties: police chief and officer agreement. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 8(2), 109\u2013122. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/police\/pau001","DOI":"10.1093\/police\/pau001"},{"issue":"4","key":"306_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1177\/1461355720962524","volume":"22","author":"NE Kruis","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kruis, N. E., Choi, J., & Donohue, R. H. (2020). Police officers, stigma, and the opioid epidemic. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 22(4), 393\u2013406. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1461355720962524","journal-title":"International Journal of Police Science & Management"},{"key":"306_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2021.108485","volume":"131","author":"NE Kruis","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kruis, N. E., McLean, K., & Perry, P. (2021). Exploring first responders\u2019 perceptions of medication for addiction treatment: Does stigma influence attitudes? Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 131, 108485. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jsat.2021.108485","journal-title":"Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-023-00748-3","volume":"20","author":"D Lloyd","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lloyd, D., Rowe, K., Leung, S. J., Pourtaher, E., & Gelberg, K. (2023). \u201cIt\u2019s just another tool on my toolbelt\u201d: New York state law enforcement officer experiences administering naloxone. Harm Reduction Journal, 20(1), 29. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12954-023-00748-3","journal-title":"Harm Reduction Journal"},{"key":"306_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2023.104188","volume":"121","author":"PL Marotta","year":"2023","unstructured":"Marotta, P. L., del Pozo, B., Baker, P., Abramovitz, D., Artamonova, I., Arredondo, J., McCreedy, K., Strathdee, S. A., Cepeda, J., & Beletsky, L. (2023). Unlocking deflection: The role of supervisor support in police officer willingness to refer people who inject drugs to harm reduction services. International Journal of Drug Policy, 121, 104188. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugpo.2023.104188","journal-title":"International Journal of Drug Policy"},{"key":"306_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2018.02.026","volume":"111","author":"EE McGinty","year":"2018","unstructured":"McGinty, E. E., Barry, C. L., Stone, E., Niederdeppe, J., Kennedy-Hendricks, A., Linden, S., & Sherman, S. G. (2018). Public support for safe consumption sites and syringe services programs to combat the opioid epidemic. Preventive Medicine, 111, 73\u201377. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ypmed.2018.02.026","journal-title":"Preventive Medicine"},{"key":"306_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2021.107007","volume":"122","author":"J Murphy","year":"2021","unstructured":"Murphy, J., & Russell, B. (2021). Police Officers\u2019 addiction frameworks and policy attitudes. Addictive Behaviors, 122, 107007. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.addbeh.2021.107007","journal-title":"Addictive Behaviors"},{"key":"306_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"NASEM. (2019). Medications for Opioid Use Disorder Save Lives. The National Academies Press. Washington, DC: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17226\/25310","DOI":"10.17226\/25310"},{"key":"306_CR33","unstructured":"Novotna, G., Rowe, W. S., & Csiernik, R. (2023). Prevention as Controversy: Harm Reduction. Responding to the oppression of addiction, p. 87"},{"key":"306_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Nix, J., Pickett, J. T., Baek, H., & Alpert, G. P. (2019). Police research, officer surveys, and response rates. Policing and Society, 29(5):530\u2013550. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10439463.2017.1394300","DOI":"10.1080\/10439463.2017.1394300"},{"key":"306_CR35","unstructured":"NPSIB. (2022). National Public Safety Information Bureau- Law Enforcement Administrators. https:\/\/www.safetysource.com\/"},{"key":"306_CR36","unstructured":"PERF. (2023). Responding to the staffing crisis: Innovations in recruitment and retention. Police Executive Research Forum"},{"key":"306_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2022.109571","volume":"238","author":"B Ray","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ray, B., Hedden, B. J., Carroll, J. J., del Pozo, B., Wagner, K., Kral, A. H., O\u2019Donnell, D., Victor, G., & Huynh, P. (2022). Prevalence and correlates of incarceration following emergency medical services response to overdose. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 238, 238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2022.109571","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"},{"issue":"7","key":"306_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.2023.307291","volume":"113","author":"B Ray","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ray, B., Korzeniewski, S. J., Mohler, G., Carroll, J. J., del Pozo, B., Victor, G., Huynh, P., & Hedden, B. J. (2023). Spatiotemporal Analysis Exploring the Effect of Law Enforcement Drug Market Disruptions on Overdose, Indianapolis, Indiana, 2020\u20132021. American Journal of Public Health, 113(7), 750\u2013758. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2105\/ajph.2023.307291","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"306_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.10.026","volume":"146","author":"B Ray","year":"2015","unstructured":"Ray, B., O\u2019Donnell, D., & Kahre, K. (2015). Police officer attitudes towards intranasal naloxone training. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 146, 107\u2013110. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.10.026","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"},{"key":"306_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2023.2227698","volume":"58","author":"J Reichert","year":"2023","unstructured":"Reichert, J., del Pozo, B., & Taylor, B. (2023). Police stigma toward people with opioid use disorder: A study of Illinois Officers. Subst Use Misuse, 58, 1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10826084.2023.2227698","journal-title":"Subst Use Misuse"},{"key":"306_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Reichert J., Martins, K., Taylor, B., & del Pozo, B. (2023). Police knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about opioid addiction treatment and harm reduction: A survey of Illinois officers. Journal of Drug Issues, 00220426231212567. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00220426231212567","DOI":"10.1177\/00220426231212567"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/14.1.32","volume":"14","author":"G Rose","year":"1985","unstructured":"Rose, G. (1985). Sick individuals and sick populations. International Journal of Epidemiology, 14(1), 32\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ije\/14.1.32","journal-title":"International Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"306_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2018.11.012","volume":"65","author":"S Rouhani","year":"2019","unstructured":"Rouhani, S., Gudlavalleti, R., Atzmon, D., Park, J. N., Olson, S. P., & Sherman, S. G. (2019). Police attitudes towards pre-booking diversion in Baltimore, Maryland. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 65, 78\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugpo.2018.11.012","journal-title":"The International Journal on Drug Policy"},{"key":"306_CR44","unstructured":"SHIELD. (2021). Safety & health integration in the enforcement of laws & drugs. Northeastern University School of Law Health in Justice Action Lab. Retrieved May 12 from https:\/\/www.shieldtraining.org\/"},{"key":"306_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2023.104100","volume":"118","author":"HM Smiley-McDonald","year":"2023","unstructured":"Smiley-McDonald, H. M., Attaway, P. R., Wenger, L. D., Greenwell, K., Lambdin, B. H., & Kral, A. H. (2023). \u201cAll carrots and no stick\u201d: Perceived impacts, changes in practices, and attitudes among law enforcement following drug decriminalization in Oregon State, USA. International Journal of Drug Policy, 118, 104100. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugpo.2023.104100","journal-title":"International Journal of Drug Policy"},{"issue":"4","key":"306_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9133.12566","volume":"20","author":"KM Socia","year":"2021","unstructured":"Socia, K. M., Stone, R., Palacios, W. R., & Cluverius, J. (2021). Focus on prevention: The public is more supportive of \u201coverdose prevention sites\u201d than they are of \u201csafe injection facilities.\u201d Criminology & Public Policy, 20(4), 729\u2013754. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1745-9133.12566","journal-title":"Criminology & Public Policy"},{"key":"306_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Sordo, L., Barrio, G., Bravo, M. J., Indave, B. I., Degenhardt, L., Wiessing, L., Ferri, M., & Pastor-Barriuso, R. (2017). Mortality risk during and after opioid substitution treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ, 357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.j1550","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.j1550"},{"key":"306_CR48","unstructured":"StataCorp. (2021). Stata statistical software: Release 17. StataCorp LLC"},{"issue":"8","key":"306_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e008958","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-008958","volume":"5","author":"SA Strathdee","year":"2015","unstructured":"Strathdee, S. A., Arredondo, J., Rocha, T., Abramovitz, D., Rolon, M. L., Pati\u00f1o Mandujano, E., Rangel, M. G., Olivarria, H. O., Gaines, T., Patterson, T. L., & Beletsky, L. (2015). A police education programme to integrate occupational safety and HIV prevention: Protocol for a modified stepped-wedge study design with parallel prospective cohorts to assess behavioural outcomes. British Medical Journal Open, 5(8), e008958. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2015-008958","journal-title":"British Medical Journal Open"},{"key":"306_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Telep, C. W., & Winegar, S. (2015). Police executive receptivity to research: A survey of chiefs and sheriffs in Oregon. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 10(3), 241\u2013249. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/police\/pav043","DOI":"10.1093\/police\/pav043"},{"issue":"14","key":"306_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1917360","volume":"382","author":"ND Volkow","year":"2020","unstructured":"Volkow, N. D. (2020). Stigma and the toll of addiction. New England Journal of Medicine, 382(14), 1289\u20131290. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMp1917360","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"issue":"2","key":"306_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21073","volume":"22","author":"ND Volkow","year":"2023","unstructured":"Volkow, N. D., & Blanco, C. (2023). Substance use disorders: A comprehensive update of classification, epidemiology, neurobiology, clinical aspects, treatment and prevention. World Psychiatry, 22(2), 203\u2013229. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/wps.21073","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"306_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.026","volume":"153","author":"KD Wagner","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wagner, K. D., Liu, L., Davidson, P. J., Cuevas-Mota, J., Armenta, R. F., & Garfein, R. S. (2015). Association between non-fatal opioid overdose and encounters with healthcare and criminal justice systems: Identifying opportunities for intervention. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 153, 215\u2013220. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.026","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"},{"issue":"2","key":"306_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1920622","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.20622","volume":"3","author":"SE Wakeman","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wakeman, S. E., Larochelle, M. R., Ameli, O., Chaisson, C. E., McPheeters, J. T., Crown, W. H., Azocar, F., & Sanghavi, D. M. (2020). Comparative effectiveness of different treatment pathways for opioid use disorder. JAMA Network Open, 3(2), e1920622\u2013e1920622. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.20622","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"key":"306_CR55","first-page":"1","volume":"86","author":"AC Watson","year":"2023","unstructured":"Watson, A. C., & El-Sabawi, T. (2023). Expansion of the police role in responding to mental health crises over the past fifty years: Driving factors, race inequities and the need to rebalance roles. Law & Contemporary Problems, 86, 1","journal-title":"Law & Contemporary Problems"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-023-00849-z","volume":"20","author":"SA White","year":"2023","unstructured":"White, S. A., Lee, R., Kennedy-Hendricks, A., Sherman, S. G., & McGinty, E. E. (2023). Perspectives of U.S. harm reduction advocates on persuasive message strategies. Harm Reduction Journal, 20(1), 112. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12954-023-00849-z","journal-title":"Harm Reduction Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"306_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e5","DOI":"10.1017\/cts.2022.501","volume":"7","author":"AG Wurcel","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wurcel, A. G., Kraus, C., Johnson, O., Zaller, N. D., Ray, B., Spaulding, A. C., Flynn, T., Quinn, C., Day, R., Akiyama, M. J., Del Pozo, B., Meyer, F., & Glenn, J. E. (2023). Stakeholder-engaged research is necessary across the criminal-legal spectrum. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 7(1), e5. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/cts.2022.501","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical and Translational Science"}],"container-title":["Health &amp; Justice"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40352-024-00306-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40352-024-00306-4\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40352-024-00306-4.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]],"date-time":"2024-12-19T10:10:45Z","timestamp":1734603045000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/healthandjusticejournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s40352-024-00306-4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["306"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40352-024-00306-4","relation":{},"ISSN":["2194-7899"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2194-7899","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"18 September 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"25 November 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 December 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"As it consisted of the administration of a survey that did not exceed minimal risk, our research was deemed exempt by Rhode Island Hospital\u2019s IRB, with a waiver of written consent, and was designed and conducted in accordance with the Common Rule. All survey respondents received an Explanation of Research prior to data collection.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"50"}}