{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T19:08:03Z","timestamp":1792004883284,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734480000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1734480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013529","name":"National Lottery Community Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10094849"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10094849"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013529","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013529","name":"National Lottery Community Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10094849"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10094849"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013529","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100013529","name":"National Lottery Community Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10094849"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10094849"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100013529","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014338","name":"National Institute for Health Research Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care Yorkshire and Humber","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIHR200166"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR200166"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014338","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Psychol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There are large and persistent social inequalities in children\u2019s educational attainment, with children from more socioeconomically disadvantaged families consistently having lower attainment. Despite this being widely reported, the mechanisms underlying the association between socioeconomic disadvantage and educational attainment are not well understood. It is important to understand the potential mechanisms by which socioeconomic disadvantage may impede on educational outcomes, as this knowledge could then be used to help target possible interventions to improve educational outcomes for socioeconomically disadvantaged children. Children\u2019s executive functions (including working memory and inhibition) and processing speed abilities may underlie these inequalities, however, the previous literature regarding this is limited. This study examined longitudinal mediating mechanisms between socioeconomic status (SES) and educational achievement, using a socioeconomically deprived and ethnically diverse cohort.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Data from the Born in Bradford longitudinal cohort study was analysed using Structural Equation Modelling (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20094201; 28% White British, 56% Pakistani heritage, 16% Other; 54% Female). SES was measured before birth, executive functions and processing speed were measured in middle childhood (M\n                      <jats:sub>age<\/jats:sub>\n                      =8.45 years), and educational achievement was obtained through educational records (M\n                      <jats:sub>age<\/jats:sub>\n                      =10.85 years). All models adjusted for child gender, age, language ability, ethnicity, and mother immigration status.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Executive functions significantly mediated the association between SES and educational achievement (B\u2009=\u20090.109), whilst processing speed did not. Examination of executive function components revealed that working memory significantly mediated the associated between SES and educational achievement (B\u2009=\u20090.100), whilst inhibition did not. Working memory appeared to account for a large proportion (39%) of the total effect of SES on educational achievement.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>These results, and the theoretical mechanisms linking working memory to educational achievement, both indicate the importance of finding ways to support children with working memory difficulties in the classroom. This is an important avenue for future research and may be useful for closing the socioeconomic gap in educational achievement.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-024-02243-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T13:02:22Z","timestamp":1734526942000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Do executive functions and processing speed mediate the relationship between socioeconomic status and educational achievement? Analysis of an observational birth cohort study"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Kate E.","family":"Mooney","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachael W.","family":"Cheung","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah L.","family":"Blower","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard J.","family":"Allen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amanda","family":"Waterman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"2243_CR1","unstructured":"Andrews J, Robinson D, Hutchinson J. Closing the Gap? Trends in Educational Attainment and Disadvantage. 2017;1\u201342."},{"key":"2243_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirin SR. Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research. Rev Educ Res [Internet]. 2005;75(3):417\u201353. http:\/\/rer.sagepub.com\/cgi\/doi\/10.3102\/00346543075003417","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543075003417"},{"key":"2243_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Parsons C. Social justice, race and class in education in England: competing perspectives. Cambridge Journal of Education [Internet]. 2019;49(3):309\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/0305764X.2018.1524848","DOI":"10.1080\/0305764X.2018.1524848"},{"key":"2243_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Breen R, Karlson KB, Education and Social Mobility. : New Analytical Approaches. Eur Sociol Rev [Internet]. 2014 Feb 1 [cited 2023 Mar 14];30(1):107\u201318. https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/esr\/article\/30\/1\/107\/442812","DOI":"10.1093\/esr\/jct025"},{"key":"2243_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marmot M. Health equity in England: the Marmot review 10 years on. BMJ [Internet]. 2020 Feb 25 [cited 2021 Sep 24];368. https:\/\/www.bmj.com\/content\/368\/bmj.m693","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.m693"},{"key":"2243_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deer LK, Hastings PD, Hostinar CE. The Role of Childhood Executive Function in Explaining Income Disparities in Long-Term Academic Achievement. Child Dev [Internet]. 2020;91(5):e1046\u201363. http:\/\/ovidsp.ovid.com\/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=prem&NEWS=N&AN=32712955","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13383"},{"key":"2243_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blakey E, Matthews D, Cragg L, Buck J, Cameron D, Higgins B et al. The Role of Executive Functions in Socioeconomic Attainment Gaps: Results From a Randomized Controlled Trial. Child Dev [Internet]. 2020;91(5):1594\u2013614. http:\/\/ovidsp.ovid.com\/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=prem&NEWS=N&AN=32031254","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13358"},{"issue":"October","key":"2243_CR8","first-page":"959","volume":"333","author":"A Diamond","year":"2011","unstructured":"Diamond A, Lee K. Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children. Sci (1979). 2011;333(October):959\u201364.","journal-title":"Sci (1979)"},{"issue":"6","key":"2243_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12096","volume":"84","author":"K Lee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Lee K, Bull R, Ho RMH. Developmental changes in executive functioning. Child Dev. 2013;84(6):1933\u201353.","journal-title":"Child Dev"},{"key":"2243_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baddeley A. Working memory. Curr Biol. 2010.","DOI":"10.4249\/scholarpedia.3015"},{"key":"2243_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aron AR. The Neural Basis of Inhibition in Cognitive Control. The Neuroscientist [Internet]. 2007 Jun 29 [cited 2018 Oct 10];13(3):214\u201328. http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/1073858407299288","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858407299288"},{"issue":"2","key":"2243_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.44.2.575","volume":"44","author":"SA Wiebe","year":"2008","unstructured":"Wiebe SA, Espy KA, Charak D. Using Confirmatory factor analysis to Understand Executive Control in Preschool Children: I. Latent structure. Dev Psychol. 2008;44(2):575\u201387.","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"2243_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2014.08.010","volume":"47","author":"CR Brydges","year":"2014","unstructured":"Brydges CR, Fox AM, Reid CL, Anderson M. The differentiation of executive functions in middle and late childhood: a longitudinal latent-variable analysis. Intelligence. 2014;47:34\u201343.","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"issue":"11","key":"2243_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797612444902","volume":"23","author":"SA Rose","year":"2012","unstructured":"Rose SA, Feldman JF, Jankowski JJ. Implications of infant cognition for executive functions at Age 11. Psychol Sci. 2012;23(11):1345\u201355.","journal-title":"Psychol Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"2243_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025415603489","volume":"41","author":"GM Lawson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Lawson GM, Farah MJ. Executive function as a mediator between SES and academic achievement throughout childhood. Int J Behav Dev. 2017;41(1):94\u2013104.","journal-title":"Int J Behav Dev"},{"key":"2243_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Mooney KE, Pickett KE, Shire K, Allen RJ, Waterman AH. Socioeconomic disadvantage and ethnicity are associated with large differences in children\u2019s working memory ability: analysis of a prospective birth cohort study following 13,500 children. BMC Psychol [Internet]. 2022;10(1):67. https:\/\/bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40359-022-00773-0","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-022-00773-0"},{"issue":"2","key":"2243_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.11.003","volume":"13","author":"DA Hackman","year":"2009","unstructured":"Hackman DA, Farah MJ. Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends Cogn Sci. 2009;13(2):65\u201373.","journal-title":"Trends Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2243_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarabulsy GM, Pearson J, Vaillancourt-Morel MP, Bussi\u00e8res EL, Madigan S, Lemelin JP et al. Meta-analytic findings of the relation between maternal prenatal stress and anxiety and child cognitive outcome. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2024 Aug 13];35(1):38\u201343. https:\/\/journals.lww.com\/jrnldbp\/fulltext\/2014\/01000\/meta_analytic_findings_of_the_relation_between.5.aspx","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000000003"},{"key":"2243_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vrantsidis DM, Clark CAC, Chevalier N, Espy KA, Wiebe SA. Socioeconomic status and executive function in early childhood: exploring proximal mechanisms. Dev Sci. 2020;23(3).","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12917"},{"issue":"2","key":"2243_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1177\/2372732217721933","volume":"4","author":"D Amso","year":"2017","unstructured":"Amso D, Lynn A. Distinctive mechanisms of Adversity and Socioeconomic Inequality in Child Development: a review and recommendations for evidence-based policy. Policy Insights Behav Brain Sci. 2017;4(2):139\u201346.","journal-title":"Policy Insights Behav Brain Sci"},{"key":"2243_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Murtha K, Larsen B, Pines A, Parkes L, Moore TM, Adebimpe A et al. Associations between neighborhood socioeconomic status, parental education, and executive system activation in youth. 2022 [cited 2024 Aug 14]; https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cercor\/bhac120","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhac120"},{"key":"2243_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Miller-Cotto D, Smith LV, Wang AH, Ribner AD, Leann Smith CV. Changing the conversation: A culturally responsive perspective on executive functions, minoritized children and their families. Infant Child Dev [Internet]. 2021 Dec 2 [cited 2021 Dec 3];e2286. https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/icd.2286","DOI":"10.1002\/icd.2286"},{"key":"2243_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urie Bronfenbrenner. The Ecology of Human Development. The Ecology of Human Development [Internet]. 1979 [cited 2024 Aug 14];7. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/The_Ecology_of_Human_Development.html?id=OCmbzWka6xUC","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674028845"},{"issue":"4","key":"2243_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1080\/17470210500162854","volume":"59","author":"HL St Clair-Thompson","year":"2006","unstructured":"St Clair-Thompson HL, Gathercole SE. Executive functions and achievements in school: shifting, updating, inhibition, and working memory. Q J Experimental Psychol. 2006;59(4):745\u201359.","journal-title":"Q J Experimental Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"2243_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000296","volume":"111","author":"SF Ahmed","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ahmed SF, Tang S, Waters NE, Davis-Kean P. Executive function and academic achievement: longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence. J Educ Psychol. 2019;111(3):446\u201358.","journal-title":"J Educ Psychol"},{"issue":"12","key":"2243_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2234","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0001270","volume":"57","author":"SF Ahmed","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ahmed SF, Kuhfeld M, Watts TW, Davis-Kean PE, Vandell DL. Preschool executive function and adult outcomes: a Developmental Cascade Model. Dev Psychol. 2021;57(12):2234\u201349.","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"2243_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2019.104734","volume":"194","author":"MR Ellefson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ellefson MR, Zachariou A, Ng FFY, Wang Q, Hughes C. Do executive functions mediate the link between socioeconomic status and numeracy skills? A cross-site comparison of Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. J Exp Child Psychol. 2020;194:104734.","journal-title":"J Exp Child Psychol"},{"key":"2243_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Nesbitt KT, Baker-Ward L, Willoughby MT. Executive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement. Early Child Res Q [Internet]. 2013;28(4):774\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ecresq.2013.07.005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2013.07.005"},{"key":"2243_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albert WD, Hanson JL, Skinner AT, Dodge KA, Steinberg L, Deater-Deckard K et al. Individual differences in executive function partially explain the socioeconomic gradient in middle-school academic achievement. Dev Sci [Internet]. 2020;23(5):e12937. http:\/\/ovidsp.ovid.com\/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=med17&NEWS=N&AN=31912610","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12937"},{"key":"2243_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2020.09.008","volume":"54","author":"NE Waters","year":"2021","unstructured":"Waters NE, Ahmed SF, Tang S, Morrison FJ, Davis-Kean PE. Pathways from socioeconomic status to early academic achievement: the role of specific executive functions. Early Child Res Q. 2021;54:321\u201331.","journal-title":"Early Child Res Q"},{"issue":"10","key":"2243_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e11121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e11121","volume":"8","author":"K Poon","year":"2022","unstructured":"Poon K, Ho MSH, Chou KL. Executive functions as mediators between socioeconomic status and academic performance in Chinese school-aged children. Heliyon. 2022;8(10):e11121.","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"2243_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James-Brabham E, Loveridge T, Sella F, Wakeling P, Carroll DJ, Blakey E. How do socioeconomic attainment gaps in early mathematical ability arise? Child Dev. 2023.","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13947"},{"key":"2243_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Laughlin KD, Martin MJ, Ferrer E. Cross-Sectional Analysis of Longitudinal Mediation Processes. Multivariate Behav Res [Internet]. 2018 May 4 [cited 2023 Aug 18];53(3):375\u2013402. https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/29624079\/","DOI":"10.1080\/00273171.2018.1454822"},{"key":"2243_CR34","unstructured":"Tierney AL, Nelson CA. Brain Development and the Role of Experience in the Early Years. Zero Three [Internet]. 2009 Nov 11 [cited 2023 Mar 10];30(2):9."},{"key":"2243_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chattoo S, Atkin K. Understanding \u2018race\u2019 and ethnicity 2e: theory, history, policy, practice. 2nd ed. Policy; 2019.","DOI":"10.56687\/9781447339694"},{"key":"2243_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fairley L, Cabieses B, Small N, Petherick ES, Lawlor DA, Pickett KE et al. Using latent class analysis to develop a model of the relationship between socioeconomic position and ethnicity: cross-sectional analyses from a multi-ethnic birth cohort study. BMC Public Health. 2014;14(1).","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-14-835"},{"key":"2243_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rea-Sandin G, Korous KM, Causadias J. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Racial\/Ethnic Differences and Similarities in Executive Function Performance in the United States. Neuropsychology. 2021.","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000715"},{"key":"2243_CR38","unstructured":"Roberts N, Bolton P. Educational outcomes of Black pupils and students. 2023."},{"key":"2243_CR39","unstructured":"Strand S. Ethnic, socio-economic and sex inequalities in educational achievement at age 16: An analysis of the Second Longitudinal Study of Young People in England (LSYPE2) Report for the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities (CRED) [Internet]. 2021. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-"},{"key":"2243_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gordon R, Smith-Spark JH, Newton EJ, Henry LA. Executive function and academic achievement in primary school children: the use of task-related processing speed. Frontiers in Psychology. Volume 9. Frontiers Media S.A.; 2018.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.00582"},{"key":"2243_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulder H, Pitchford NJ, Marlow N. Processing speed and working memory underlie academic attainment in very preterm children. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed [Internet]. 2010 Jul 1 [cited 2018 Oct 30];95(4):F267-72. http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20488865","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.2009.167965"},{"issue":"1","key":"2243_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8279.2011.02039.x","volume":"82","author":"MC Passolunghi","year":"2012","unstructured":"Passolunghi MC, Lanfranchi S. Domain-specific and domain-general precursors of mathematical achievement: a longitudinal study from kindergarten to first grade. Br J Educ Psychol. 2012;82(1):42\u201363.","journal-title":"Br J Educ Psychol"},{"key":"2243_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Buckhalt JA, El-Sheikh M, Keller P. Children\u2019s Sleep and Cognitive Functioning: Race and Socioeconomic Status as Moderators of Effects. Child Dev [Internet]. 2007 Jan 1 [cited 2023 Feb 22];78(1):213\u201331. https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2007.00993.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2007.00993.x"},{"key":"2243_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2018.09.003","volume":"178","author":"AM St. John","year":"2019","unstructured":"St. John AM, Kibbe M, Tarullo AR. A systematic assessment of socioeconomic status and executive functioning in early childhood. J Exp Child Psychol. 2019;178:352\u201368.","journal-title":"J Exp Child Psychol"},{"key":"2243_CR45","unstructured":"Barnes A, SC, BA, LR, CM, MS, PM, DH, SM, TRD PK. APPG Child of the North - Child Poverty and the Cost of Living Crisis. A report prepared for the APPG Child of the North. [Internet]. 2022. https:\/\/www.thenhsa.co.uk\/"},{"key":"2243_CR46","unstructured":"Department of Education. Schools, pupils and their characteristics: January 2018 - GOV.UK [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2024 Feb 26]. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/statistics\/schools-pupils-and-their-characteristics-january-2018"},{"key":"2243_CR47","unstructured":"City of Bradford Council. Bradford Council. 2021 [cited 2022 Dec 19]. 2021 Census: Bradford District. https:\/\/ubd.bradford.gov.uk\/about-us\/2021-census\/"},{"issue":"4","key":"2243_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dys112","volume":"42","author":"J Wright","year":"2013","unstructured":"Wright J, Small N, Raynor P, Tuffnell, Bhopal C, et al. Cohort profile: the born in Bradford multi-ethnic family cohort study. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(4):978\u201391.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2243_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hill LJB, Shire KA, Allen RJ, Crossley K, Wood ML, Mason D et al. Large-scale assessment of 7\u201311 year old\u2019s cognitive and sensorimotor function within the born in Bradford longitudinal birth cohort study. Wellcome Open Res. 2021.","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.16429.1"},{"key":"2243_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Krieger N, Williams DR, Moss NE. Measuring Social Class in US Public Health Research: Concepts, Methodologies, and Guidelines. Annu Rev Public Health [Internet]. 1997;18(1):341\u201378. http:\/\/www.annualreviews.org\/doi\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.18.1.341","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.18.1.341"},{"key":"2243_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Kelaher M, Paul S, Lambert H, Ahmad W, Smith GD. The applicability of measures of socioeconomic position to different ethnic groups within the UK. Int J Equity Health [Internet]. 2009 Feb 27 [cited 2020 Nov 11];8(1):1\u20138. https:\/\/link.springer.com\/articles\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1475-9276-8-4","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-9276-8-4"},{"key":"2243_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Uphoff EP, Pickett KE, Wright J. Social gradients in health for Pakistani and White British women and infants in two UK birth cohorts. Ethn Health [Internet]. 2016;21(5):452\u201367. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13557858.2015.1091442","DOI":"10.1080\/13557858.2015.1091442"},{"key":"2243_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Collings PJ, Kelly B, West J, Wright J. Associations of TV Viewing Duration, Meals and Snacks Eaten When Watching TV, and a TV in the Bedroom with Child Adiposity. Obesity [Internet]. 2018 Oct 1 [cited 2024 Feb 23];26(10):1619\u201328. https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/oby.22288","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.22288"},{"issue":"3","key":"2243_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1037\/a0029315","volume":"17","author":"M Rhemtulla","year":"2012","unstructured":"Rhemtulla M, Brosseau-Liard P\u00c9, Savalei V. When can categorical variables be treated as continuous? A comparison of robust continuous and categorical SEM estimation methods under suboptimal conditions. Psychol Methods. 2012;17(3):354\u201373.","journal-title":"Psychol Methods"},{"key":"2243_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aguinis H, Gottfredson RK, Joo H. Best-Practice Recommendations for Defining, Identifying, and Handling Outliers. Organ Res Methods [Internet]. 2013 Apr 1 [cited 2024 Aug 14];16(2):270\u2013301. https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full\/10.1177\/1094428112470848","DOI":"10.1177\/1094428112470848"},{"key":"2243_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosseel Y, Lavaan. An R package for structural equation modeling. J Stat Softw. 2012;48.","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v048.i02"},{"key":"2243_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baghdadi G, Towhidkhah F, Rajabi M. Assessment methods. Neurocognitive Mech Atten. 2021;203\u201350.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-90935-8.00005-6"},{"issue":"3","key":"2243_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1037\/a0024448","volume":"16","author":"KA Bollen","year":"2011","unstructured":"Bollen KA, Bauldry S. Three cs in Measurement models: causal indicators, Composite indicators, and covariates. Psychol Methods. 2011;16(3):265\u201384.","journal-title":"Psychol Methods"},{"key":"2243_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johfre SS, Freese J. Reconsidering the Reference Category. Sociol Methodol [Internet]. 2021 Aug 1 [cited 2024 Mar 15];51(2):253\u201369. https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full\/10.1177\/0081175020982632","DOI":"10.1177\/0081175020982632"},{"key":"2243_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bollen KA, Noble MD. Structural equation models and the quantification of behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A [Internet]., Nov. 26];108(SUPPL. 3):15639\u201346. Available from: www.https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1010661108","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010661108"},{"key":"2243_CR61","unstructured":"Hooper D, Coughlan J, Mullen M. 7th European Conference on research methodology for business and management studies. 2008. pp. 195\u2013200 Evaluating model fit: a synthesis of the structural equation modelling literature."},{"issue":"6","key":"2243_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.emj.2016.06.003","volume":"34","author":"S Streukens","year":"2016","unstructured":"Streukens S, Leroi-Werelds S, Bootstrapping. A step-by-step guide to get more out of your bootstrap results. Eur Manag J. 2016;34(6):618\u201332.","journal-title":"Eur Manag J"},{"issue":"404","key":"2243_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1988.10478722","volume":"83","author":"RJA Little","year":"1988","unstructured":"Little RJA. A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. J Am Stat Assoc. 1988;83(404):1198\u2013202.","journal-title":"J Am Stat Assoc"},{"issue":"3","key":"2243_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1207\/S15328007SEM0803_5","volume":"8","author":"CK Enders","year":"2001","unstructured":"Enders CK, Bandalos DL. The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Struct Equ Model. 2001;8(3):430\u201357.","journal-title":"Struct Equ Model"},{"key":"2243_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee TSD. A comparison of full information maximum likelihood and multiple imputation in structural equation modeling with missing data. Psychol Methods. 2021;26(4).","DOI":"10.1037\/met0000381"},{"key":"2243_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2017.04.007","volume":"48","author":"P Tomalski","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tomalski P, Marczuk K, Pisula E, Malinowska A, Kawa R, Nied\u017awiecka A. Chaotic home environment is associated with reduced infant processing speed under high task demands. Infant Behav Dev. 2017;48:124\u201333.","journal-title":"Infant Behav Dev"},{"key":"2243_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holmes J, Adams JW. Working Memory and Children\u2019s Mathematical Skills: Implications for mathematical development and mathematics curricula. Educ Psychol (Lond) [Internet]. 2006 Jun [cited 2023 Dec 5];26(3):339\u201366. https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1080\/01443410500341056","DOI":"10.1080\/01443410500341056"},{"issue":"1","key":"2243_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.934","volume":"18","author":"P Gathercole","year":"2004","unstructured":"Gathercole P, Knight S. Working memory skills and educational attainment: evidence from national curriculum assessments at 7 and 14 years of age. Appl Cogn Psychol. 2004;18(1):1\u201316.","journal-title":"Appl Cogn Psychol"},{"key":"2243_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tate.2021.103343","volume":"103","author":"A Atkinson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Atkinson A, Allen RJ, Waterman AH. Exploring the understanding and experience of working memory in teaching professionals: a large-sample questionnaire study. Teach Teach Educ. 2021;103:103343.","journal-title":"Teach Teach Educ"},{"key":"2243_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dunning DL, Holmes J. Does working memory training promote the use of strategies on untrained working memory tasks? Mem Cognit [Internet]. 2014 Aug 1 [cited 2021 Jun 4];42(6):854\u201362. https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13421-014-0410-5","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-014-0410-5"},{"issue":"2","key":"2243_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028228","volume":"49","author":"M Melby-Lerv\u00e5g","year":"2013","unstructured":"Melby-Lerv\u00e5g M, Hulme C. Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Dev Psychol. 2013;49(2):270\u201391.","journal-title":"Dev Psychol"},{"key":"2243_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rowe A, Titterington J, Holmes J, Henry L, Taggart L. Interventions targeting working memory in 4\u201311 year olds within their everyday contexts: a systematic review. Developmental Review. Volume 52. Mosby Inc.; 2019. pp. 1\u201323.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2019.02.001"},{"key":"2243_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wolf EJ, Harrington KM, Clark SL, Miller MW. Sample Size Requirements for Structural Equation Models. Educ Psychol Meas [Internet]. 2013 Dec 9 [cited 2020 Nov 26];73(6):913\u201334. http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0013164413495237","DOI":"10.1177\/0013164413495237"},{"key":"2243_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Troller-Renfree SV, Costanzo MA, Duncan GJ, Magnuson K, Gennetian LA, Yoshikawa H et al. The impact of a poverty reduction intervention on infant brain activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences [Internet]. 2022 Feb 1 [cited 2022 Jan 26];119(5). https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/content\/119\/5\/e2115649119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2115649119"}],"container-title":["BMC Psychology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-024-02243-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40359-024-02243-1\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-024-02243-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]],"date-time":"2024-12-18T14:06:38Z","timestamp":1734530798000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s40359-024-02243-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["2243"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40359-024-02243-1","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-5019085\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2050-7283"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2050-7283","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2 September 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"29 November 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 December 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Bornin Bradford received ethical approval for the data collection from the Bradford Research Ethics Committee (reference: 07\/H1302\/112), which included specifying the requirement for informed consent to participate (for the mothers) and informed consent from legal guardians (for the children). The planned study received ethical scrutiny as part of the BiB data application. Ethical approval for the most recent wave of data collection was obtained from the NHS Health Research Authority\u2019s Yorkshire and the Humber\u2014Bradford Leeds Research Ethics Committee (reference: 16\/YH\/0062) on the 24th March 2016. Consent obtained during recruitment to the Born in Bradford study.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"746"}}