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All original data collection was conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and its national partners in strict compliance with internationally recognized research ethics standards, including obtaining informed consent from students, parents, and schools. As the present research constitutes a secondary analysis of anonymized aggregated data and does not involve the collection of new personally identifiable information, no additional institutional review board approval is required. The implementation of this research fully adheres to the OECD\u2019s PISA data usage terms and policies.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"1032"}}