{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T01:55:03Z","timestamp":1793152503636,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780099200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781568000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":17,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"The National Social Science Foundation of China","award":["21BYY100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21BYY100"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Psychol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This study employed eye-tracking technology to investigate the effect of memory load on language switching during Chinese-English bilingual sentence comprehension. Using a within-subject experimental design with three levels of load (low, medium, high), two language types (Chinese, English), and two context types (non-switch, switch), the study collected behavioral measures and eye-tracking measures. The results revealed that under high load, switching from English (L2) to Chinese (L1) resulted in the longest reaction times and the highest costs, whereas switching into L2 consistently yielded switch benefits. Eye-tracking data indicated a dissociation between temporal and spatial dimensions at the sentence level, with switch effects demonstrating contrasting patterns. Similar processing patterns were observed at the target word across the early and late stages, with a significant increase in the effect in the latter. These findings suggest that language-switching costs are not fixed but adaptable, with cognitive load modulating the interplay between language and context, highlighting the intricate relationship between domain-general cognitive control and language-specific switching mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-026-04871-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T08:24:53Z","timestamp":1780129493000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The modulating role of memory load on language switching in sentence comprehension: evidence from eye movements"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Yun","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinfang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chang\u2019an","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"4871_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.00140","volume":"10","author":"RR Heredia","year":"2001","unstructured":"Heredia RR, Altarriba J. Bilingual language mixing: Why do bilinguals code-switch? Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2001;10:164\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1467-8721.00140.","journal-title":"Curr Dir Psychol Sci"},{"key":"4871_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0000021","volume":"41","author":"M Declerck","year":"2015","unstructured":"Declerck M, Koch I, Philipp AM. The minimum requirements of language control: evidence from sequential predictability effects in language switching. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2015;41:377\u201394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/xlm0000021.","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Tomi\u0107 A, Vald\u00e9s Kroff J. Code-switching: A processing burden, or a valuable resource for prediction? In: Kaan E, Gr\u00fcter T, editors. Prediction in Second Language Processing and Learning. John Benjamins Publishing Company; 2021. pp. 139\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1075\/bpa.12.07tom.","DOI":"10.1075\/bpa.12.07tom"},{"key":"4871_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728998000133","volume":"1","author":"DW Green","year":"1998","unstructured":"Green DW. Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Biling Lang Cogn. 1998;1:67\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728998000133.","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728919000877","volume":"23","author":"A Shen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Shen A, Gahl S, Johnson K. Didn\u2019t hear that coming: Effects of withholding phonetic cues to code-switching. Biling Lang Cogn. 2020;23:1020\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728919000877.","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7565","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1811513116","volume":"116","author":"V DeLuca","year":"2019","unstructured":"DeLuca V, Rothman J, Bialystok E, Pliatsikas C. Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2019;116:7565\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1811513116.","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci"},{"key":"4871_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2013.792822","volume":"25","author":"SC Bobb","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bobb SC, Wodniecka Z. Language switching in picture naming: What asymmetric switch costs (do not) tell us about inhibition in bilingual speech planning. J Cogn Psychol. 2013;25:568\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/20445911.2013.792822.","journal-title":"J Cogn Psychol"},{"key":"4871_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1998.2602","volume":"40","author":"RFI Meuter","year":"1999","unstructured":"Meuter RFI, Allport A. Bilingual language switching in naming: asymmetrical costs of language selection. J Mem Lang. 1999;40:25\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/jmla.1998.2602.","journal-title":"J Mem Lang"},{"key":"4871_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1177\/0267658311434893","volume":"28","author":"P Macizo","year":"2012","unstructured":"Macizo P, Bajo T, Paolieri D. Language switching and language competition. Second Lang Res. 2012;28:131\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0267658311434893.","journal-title":"Second Lang Res"},{"key":"4871_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1999.2700","volume":"43","author":"MSC Thomas","year":"2000","unstructured":"Thomas MSC, Allport A. Language switching costs in bilingual visual word recognition. J Mem Lang. 2000;43:44\u201366. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/jmla.1999.2700.","journal-title":"J Mem Lang"},{"key":"4871_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2013.796377","volume":"25","author":"DW Green","year":"2013","unstructured":"Green DW, Abutalebi J. Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. J Cogn Psychol. 2013;25:515\u201330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/20445911.2013.796377.","journal-title":"J Cogn Psychol"},{"key":"4871_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100422","volume":"63","author":"A Baddeley","year":"2012","unstructured":"Baddeley A. Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annu Rev Psychol. 2012;63:1\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100422.","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"key":"4871_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721420922183","volume":"29","author":"F Paas","year":"2020","unstructured":"Paas F, van Merri\u00ebnboer JJG. Cognitive-load theory: Methods to manage working memory load in the learning of complex tasks. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2020;29:394\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0963721420922183.","journal-title":"Curr Dir Psychol Sci"},{"key":"4871_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721410370295","volume":"19","author":"N Lavie","year":"2010","unstructured":"Lavie N. Attention, distraction, and cognitive control under load. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2010;19:143\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0963721410370295.","journal-title":"Curr Dir Psychol Sci"},{"key":"4871_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728917000050","volume":"21","author":"A Ito","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ito A, Corley M, Pickering MJ. A cognitive load delays predictive eye movements similarly during L1 and L2 comprehension. Biling Lang Cogn. 2018;21:251\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728917000050.","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1518\/001872098779480578","volume":"40","author":"A Gevins","year":"1998","unstructured":"Gevins A, Smith ME, Leong H, McEvoy L, Whitfield S, Du R, et al. Monitoring working memory load during computer-based tasks with EEG pattern recognition methods. Hum Factors. 1998;40:79\u201391. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1518\/001872098779480578.","journal-title":"Hum Factors"},{"key":"4871_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-199701200-00033","volume":"8","author":"DS Manoach","year":"1997","unstructured":"Manoach DS, Schlaug G, Siewert B, Darby DG, Bly BM, Benfield A, et al. Prefrontal cortex fMRI signal changes are correlated with working memory load. NeuroReport. 1997;8:545.","journal-title":"NeuroReport"},{"key":"4871_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-025-04628-2","volume":"12","author":"T Wang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Wang T, Wang Y, Hu H, Wang X, Chen S, Yang Y. An eye-movement database of bilingual language control for Chinese-English bilinguals. Sci Data. 2025;12:332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41597-025-04628-2.","journal-title":"Sci Data"},{"key":"4871_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5213","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-89336-y","volume":"15","author":"M Ekin","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ekin M, Krejtz K, Duarte C, Duchowski AT, Krejtz I. Prediction of intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load with oculometric and biometric indicators. Sci Rep. 2025;15:5213. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-025-89336-y.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"4871_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0130608","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0130608","volume":"10","author":"C Scharinger","year":"2015","unstructured":"Scharinger C, Kammerer Y, Gerjets P. Pupil dilation and EEG alpha frequency band power reveal load on executive functions for link-selection processes during text reading. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0130608. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0130608.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"4871_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-018-1432-y","volume":"25","author":"P van der Wel","year":"2018","unstructured":"van der Wel P, van Steenbergen H. Pupil dilation as an index of effort in cognitive control tasks: A review. Psychon Bull Rev. 2018;25:2005\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-018-1432-y.","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"key":"4871_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.124.3.372","volume":"124","author":"K Rayner","year":"1998","unstructured":"Rayner K. Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychol Bull. 1998;124:372\u2013422. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-2909.124.3.372.","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"key":"4871_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.105.1.125","volume":"105","author":"ED Reichle","year":"1998","unstructured":"Reichle ED, Pollatsek A, Fisher DL, Rayner K. Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychol Rev. 1998;105:125\u201357. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.105.1.125.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"4871_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0000276","volume":"42","author":"M Yan","year":"2016","unstructured":"Yan M, Kliegl R. CarPrice versus CarpRice: Word boundary ambiguity influences saccade target selection during the reading of Chinese sentences. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2016;42:1832\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/xlm0000276.","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1017\/langcog.2022.17","volume":"14","author":"L Karsenti","year":"2022","unstructured":"Karsenti L, Meltzer-Asscher A. Prediction of successful reanalysis based on eye-blink rate and reading times in sentences with local ambiguity. Lang Cogn. 2022;14:552\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/langcog.2022.17.","journal-title":"Lang Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.99.1.122","volume":"99","author":"MA Just","year":"1992","unstructured":"Just MA, Carpenter PA. A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory. Psychol Rev. 1992;99:122\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.99.1.122.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"4871_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-012-0186-0","volume":"44","author":"JID Campbell","year":"2012","unstructured":"Campbell JID, Thompson VA. MorePower 6.0 for ANOVA with relational confidence intervals and Bayesian analysis. Behav Res Methods. 2012;44:1255\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-012-0186-0.","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"4871_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.13724\/j.cnki.ctiw.2017.04.011","volume":"31","author":"S Gao","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gao S. Processing advantage of formulaic sequences in Chinese reading by native and second language speakers: An eye-tracking study. Chin Teach World. 2017;31:560\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13724\/j.cnki.ctiw.2017.04.011.","journal-title":"Chin Teach World"},{"key":"4871_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1996.0039","volume":"35","author":"P Li","year":"1996","unstructured":"Li P. Spoken word recognition of code-switched words by Chinese\u2013English bilinguals. J Mem Lang. 1996;35:757\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/jmla.1996.0039.","journal-title":"J Mem Lang"},{"key":"4871_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2010.11.006","volume":"118","author":"JP Morford","year":"2011","unstructured":"Morford JP, Wilkinson E, Villwock A, Pi\u00f1ar P, Kroll JF. When deaf signers read English: Do written words activate their sign translations? Cognition. 2011;118:286\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cognition.2010.11.006.","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"4871_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1075\/lab.16010.van","volume":"8","author":"JG van Hell","year":"2018","unstructured":"van Hell JG, Fernandez CB, Kootstra GJ, Litcofsky KA, Ting CY. Electrophysiological and experimental-behavioral approaches to the study of intra-sentential code-switching. Linguist Approaches Biling. 2018;8:134\u201361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1075\/lab.16010.van.","journal-title":"Linguist Approaches Biling"},{"key":"4871_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1006\/brln.2001.2588","volume":"80","author":"EM Moreno","year":"2002","unstructured":"Moreno EM, Federmeier KD, Kutas M. Switching languages, switching Palabras (Words): An electrophysiological study of code switching. Brain Lang. 2002;80:188\u2013207. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/brln.2001.2588.","journal-title":"Brain Lang"},{"key":"4871_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-011-0179-5","volume":"19","author":"V Whitford","year":"2012","unstructured":"Whitford V, Titone D. Second-language experience modulates first- and second-language word frequency effects: evidence from eye movement measures of natural paragraph reading. Psychon Bull Rev. 2012;19:73\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-011-0179-5.","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"key":"4871_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.6.2.174","volume":"6","author":"JG Snodgrass","year":"1980","unstructured":"Snodgrass JG, Vanderwart M. A standardized set of 260 pictures: Norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity. J Exp Psychol [Hum Learn]. 1980;6:174\u2013215. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0278-7393.6.2.174.","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol [Hum Learn]"},{"key":"4871_CR35","first-page":"447","volume":"35","author":"Q Zhang","year":"2003","unstructured":"Zhang Q, Yang Y. The determiners of picture-naming latency. Acta Psychol Sin. 2003;35:447\u201354.","journal-title":"Acta Psychol Sin"},{"key":"4871_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1863","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-015-0899-0","volume":"77","author":"Z Shipstead","year":"2015","unstructured":"Shipstead Z, Harrison TL, Engle RW. Working memory capacity and the scope and control of attention. Atten Percept Psychophys. 2015;77:1863\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13414-015-0899-0.","journal-title":"Atten Percept Psychophys"},{"key":"4871_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1080\/13506285.2013.879630","volume":"22","author":"AW Inhoff","year":"2014","unstructured":"Inhoff AW, Radach R. Parafoveal preview benefits during silent and oral reading: Testing the parafoveal information extraction hypothesis. Vis Cogn. 2014;22:354\u201376. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13506285.2013.879630.","journal-title":"Vis Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-021-06048-1","volume":"239","author":"D Liu","year":"2021","unstructured":"Liu D, Wang Y, Lu F, Shu D, Zhang J, Zhu C, et al. Emotional valence modulates arithmetic strategy execution in priming paradigm: an event-related potential study. Exp Brain Res. 2021;239:1151\u201363. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00221-021-06048-1.","journal-title":"Exp Brain Res"},{"key":"4871_CR39","first-page":"47","volume":"12","author":"X Wu","year":"2007","unstructured":"Wu X, Anderson RC. Reading strategies revealed in Chinese children\u2019s oral reading. Lit Teach Learn. 2007;12:47\u201372.","journal-title":"Lit Teach Learn"},{"key":"4871_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.12139\/j.1672-0628.2022.03.003","volume":"20","author":"M Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang M, Hu H, Bian H, Li F, Zhang Z, Zang C. Word frequency effects in fast and slow readers during skilled Chinese reading. Stud Psychol Behav. 2022;20:304\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12139\/j.1672-0628.2022.03.003.","journal-title":"Stud Psychol Behav"},{"key":"4871_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.16719\/j.cnki.1671-6981.20220404","volume":"45","author":"M Zhang","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhang M, Bai X. Effects of word frequency and reading mode on the word boundary effect during Chinese sentence reading. J Psychol Sci. 2022;45:794\u2013802. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.16719\/j.cnki.1671-6981.20220404.","journal-title":"J Psychol Sci"},{"key":"4871_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2014.984231","volume":"69","author":"G Jacob","year":"2016","unstructured":"Jacob G, Felser C. Reanalysis and semantic persistence in native and non-native garden-path recovery. Q J Exp Psychol. 2016;69:907\u201325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17470218.2014.984231.","journal-title":"Q J Exp Psychol"},{"key":"4871_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263123000438","volume":"46","author":"X Zhang","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhang X, Gong N. Modeling effects of linguistic complexity on L2 processing effort: The case of eye movement in text reading. Stud Second Lang Acquis. 2024;46:141\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S0272263123000438.","journal-title":"Stud Second Lang Acquis"},{"key":"4871_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5190","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-023-02261-8","volume":"56","author":"AG de Varda","year":"2024","unstructured":"de Varda AG, Marelli M, Amenta S. Cloze probability, predictability ratings, and computational estimates for 205 English sentences, aligned with existing EEG and reading time data. Behav Res Methods. 2024;56:5190\u2013213. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13428-023-02261-8.","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"4871_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728914000674","volume":"18","author":"S Sonbul","year":"2015","unstructured":"Sonbul S. Fatal mistake, awful mistake, or extreme mistake? Frequency effects on off-line\/on-line collocational processing. Biling Lang Cogn. 2015;18:419\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/S1366728914000674.","journal-title":"Biling Lang Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Duleme M, Perrey S, Dray G, Tena-Chollet F. Combining electrophysiological metrics in assessing changes in working memory load. Front Hum Neurosci. 2018;12. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/conf.fnhum.2018.227.00066.","DOI":"10.3389\/conf.fnhum.2018.227.00066"},{"key":"4871_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-020-03105-z","volume":"24","author":"C Robba","year":"2020","unstructured":"Robba C, Pozzebon S, Moro B, Vincent J-L, Creteur J, Taccone FS. Multimodal non-invasive assessment of intracranial hypertension: an observational study. Crit Care. 2020;24:379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13054-020-03105-z.","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"key":"4871_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2023.2274558","volume":"39","author":"F Magnabosco","year":"2024","unstructured":"Magnabosco F, Hauk O. An eye on semantics: A study on the influence of concreteness and predictability on early fixation durations. Lang Cogn Neurosci. 2024;39:302\u201316. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/23273798.2023.2274558.","journal-title":"Lang Cogn Neurosci"},{"key":"4871_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"01432","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.01432","volume":"6","author":"J Laubrock","year":"2015","unstructured":"Laubrock J, Kliegl R. The eye-voice span during reading aloud. Front Psychol. 2015;6:01432. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.01432.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"4871_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1002\/rrq.362","volume":"56","author":"D Schmidtke","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schmidtke D, Moro AL. Determinants of word-reading development in English learner university students: A longitudinal eye movement study. Read Res Q. 2021;56:819\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/rrq.362.","journal-title":"Read Res Q"},{"key":"4871_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028881","volume":"39","author":"PC Gordon","year":"2013","unstructured":"Gordon PC, Plummer P, Choi W. See before you jump: Full recognition of parafoveal words precedes skips during reading. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2013;39:633\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0028881.","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn"},{"key":"4871_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1002\/rrq.414","volume":"57","author":"O Parshina","year":"2022","unstructured":"Parshina O, Sekerina IA, Lopukhina A, von der Malsburg T. Monolingual and bilingual reading processes in Russian: An exploratory scanpath analysis. Read Res Q. 2022;57:469\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/rrq.414.","journal-title":"Read Res Q"},{"key":"4871_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7645","DOI":"10.3390\/app15147645","volume":"15","author":"Q Tang","year":"2025","unstructured":"Tang Q, Chen C. Vocabulary retention under multimodal coupling strength index (MCSI): Insights from eye tracking. Appl Sci. 2025;15:7645. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/app15147645.","journal-title":"Appl Sci"},{"key":"4871_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2018.1439036","volume":"22","author":"SP Korinth","year":"2018","unstructured":"Korinth SP, Fiebach CJ. Improving silent reading performance through feedback on eye movements: A feasibility study. Sci Stud Read. 2018;22:289\u2013307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10888438.2018.1439036.","journal-title":"Sci Stud Read"},{"key":"4871_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.16910\/jemr.8.2.3","volume":"8","author":"S Husain","year":"2014","unstructured":"Husain S, Vasishth S, Srinivasan N, Husain S, Vasishth S, Srinivasan N. Integration and prediction difficulty in Hindi sentence comprehension: Evidence from an eye-tracking corpus. J Eye Mov Res. 2014;8:1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.16910\/jemr.8.2.3.","journal-title":"J Eye Mov Res"},{"key":"4871_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1037\/a0023517","volume":"140","author":"A Staub","year":"2011","unstructured":"Staub A. Word recognition and syntactic attachment in reading: Evidence for a staged architecture. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2011;140:407\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/a0023517.","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Gen"},{"key":"4871_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0208030","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0208030","volume":"13","author":"P H\u00f6mke","year":"2018","unstructured":"H\u00f6mke P, Holler J, Levinson SC. Eye blinks are perceived as communicative signals in human face-to-face interaction. PLoS ONE. 2018;13:e0208030. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0208030.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"4871_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1037\/h0034747","volume":"80","author":"D Kahneman","year":"1973","unstructured":"Kahneman D, Tversky A. On the psychology of prediction. Psychol Rev. 1973;80:237\u201351. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/h0034747.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"4871_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1994.1008","volume":"33","author":"JF Kroll","year":"1994","unstructured":"Kroll JF, Stewart E. Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. J Mem Lang. 1994;33:149\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/jmla.1994.1008.","journal-title":"J Mem Lang"},{"key":"4871_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0001161","volume":"49","author":"LJ Hoversten","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hoversten LJ, Martin CD. Parafoveal processing in bilingual readers: Semantic access within but not across languages. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 2023;49:1564\u201378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/xhp0001161.","journal-title":"J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform"},{"key":"4871_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.103.3.518","volume":"103","author":"J Grainger","year":"1996","unstructured":"Grainger J, Jacobs AM. Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model. Psychol Rev. 1996;103:518\u201365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.103.3.518.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"4871_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2004.02.002","volume":"50","author":"A Costa","year":"2004","unstructured":"Costa A, Santesteban M. Lexical access in bilingual speech production: Evidence from language switching in highly proficient bilinguals and L2 learners. J Mem Lang. 2004;50:491\u2013511. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jml.2004.02.002.","journal-title":"J Mem Lang"},{"key":"4871_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12405","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-91845-5","volume":"11","author":"K Walter","year":"2021","unstructured":"Walter K, Bex P. Cognitive load influences oculomotor behavior in natural scenes. Sci Rep. 2021;11:12405. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-021-91845-5.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"4871_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1097\/RMR.0b013e3181f22f69","volume":"20","author":"R de Oliveira-Souza","year":"2009","unstructured":"de Oliveira-Souza R, Moll J. The neural bases of normal and deviant moral cognition and behavior. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2009;20:261\u201370. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097\/RMR.0b013e3181f22f69.","journal-title":"Top Magn Reson Imaging"},{"key":"4871_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s10548-025-01118-x","volume":"38","author":"N Vassolo","year":"2025","unstructured":"Vassolo N, Ocampo PJ, Elizalde Acevedo B, Bosch S, Bendersky M, Alba-Ferrara L. Understanding sarcasm\u2019s neural correlates through a novel fMRI Spanish paradigm. Brain Topogr. 2025;38:46. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s10548-025-01118-x.","journal-title":"Brain Topogr"},{"key":"4871_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0529-21.2022","volume":"43","author":"KS Aboud","year":"2023","unstructured":"Aboud KS, Nguyen TQ, Tufo SND, Chang C, Zald DH, Key AP, et al. Rapid interactions of widespread brain networks characterize semantic cognition. J Neurosci. 2023;43:142\u201354. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0529-21.2022.","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"4871_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858411409051","volume":"18","author":"R Ptak","year":"2012","unstructured":"Ptak R. The frontoparietal attention network of the human brain: Action, saliency, and a priority map of the environment. Neuroscientist. 2012;18:502\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1073858411409051.","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"4871_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsw127","volume":"12","author":"J Jiang","year":"2017","unstructured":"Jiang J, Borowiak K, Tudge L, Otto C, von Kriegstein K. Neural mechanisms of eye contact when listening to another person talking. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2017;12:319\u201328. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/scan\/nsw127.","journal-title":"Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci"},{"key":"4871_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acp063","volume":"24","author":"KM Miller","year":"2009","unstructured":"Miller KM, Price CC, Okun MS, Montijo H, Bowers D. Is the n-back task a valid neuropsychological measure for assessing working memory? Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2009;24:711\u20137. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/arclin\/acp063.","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"4871_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.3390\/languages7030198","volume":"7","author":"N-Y Hui","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hui N-Y, Fong MC-M, Wang WS, Hui N-Y, Fong MC-M, Wang WS. Bilingual prefabs: No switching cost was found in Cantonese\u2013English habitual code-switching in Hong Kong. Languages. 2022;7:198\u2013198. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/languages7030198.","journal-title":"Languages"},{"key":"4871_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1075\/lab.21039.ols","volume":"14","author":"DJ Olson","year":"2024","unstructured":"Olson DJ. The bilingual code-switching profile (BCSP): Assessing the reliability and validity of the BCSP questionnaire. Linguist Approaches Biling. 2024;14:400\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1075\/lab.21039.ols.","journal-title":"Linguist Approaches Biling"},{"key":"4871_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-023-02323-0","volume":"31","author":"D Khanzhyn","year":"2024","unstructured":"Khanzhyn D, van Heuven WJB, Rataj K. The impact of spatial and verbal working memory load on semantic relatedness judgements. Psychon Bull Rev. 2024;31:781\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/s13423-023-02323-0.","journal-title":"Psychon Bull Rev"},{"key":"4871_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2023.112275","volume":"195","author":"K Boere","year":"2024","unstructured":"Boere K, Hecker K, Krigolson OE. Validation of a mobile fNIRS device for measuring working memory load in the prefrontal cortex. Int J Psychophysiol. 2024;195:112275. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2023.112275.","journal-title":"Int J Psychophysiol"},{"key":"4871_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2022.11.013","volume":"92","author":"DP Broadbent","year":"2023","unstructured":"Broadbent DP, D\u2019Innocenzo G, Ellmers TJ, Parsler J, Szameitat AJ, Bishop DT. Cognitive load, working memory capacity and driving performance: A preliminary fNIRS and eye tracking study. Transp Res Part F Traffic Psychol Behav. 2023;92:121\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.trf.2022.11.013.","journal-title":"Transp Res Part F Traffic Psychol Behav"},{"key":"4871_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.16201","volume":"59","author":"A-L Le Cunff","year":"2024","unstructured":"Le Cunff A-L, Dommett E, Giampietro V. Neurophysiological measures and correlates of cognitive load in attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and dyslexia: A scoping review and research recommendations. Eur J Neurosci. 2024;59:256\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ejn.16201.","journal-title":"Eur J Neurosci"},{"key":"4871_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0398232023","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0398-23.2023","volume":"44","author":"J Li","year":"2024","unstructured":"Li J, Cao D, Yu S, Wang H, Imbach L, Stieglitz L, et al. Theta-alpha connectivity in the hippocampal-entorhinal circuit predicts working memory load. J Neurosci. 2024;44:e0398232023. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0398-23.2023.","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"4871_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20306","volume":"28","author":"AM Tuladhar","year":"2007","unstructured":"Tuladhar AM, ter Huurne N, Schoffelen J-M, Maris E, Oostenveld R, Jensen O. Parieto-occipital sources account for the increase in alpha activity with working memory load. Hum Brain Mapp. 2007;28:785\u201392. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/hbm.20306.","journal-title":"Hum Brain Mapp"}],"container-title":["BMC Psychology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40359-026-04871-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-026-04871-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-026-04871-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T12:29:55Z","timestamp":1781612995000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s40359-026-04871-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["4871"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40359-026-04871-1","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-7771436\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2050-7283"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2050-7283","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"3 October 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 May 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 May 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors confirm that the experiment complied with the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the local ethics committee of Zhejiang International Studies University. All participants provided written informed consent before participation.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"880"}}