{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T09:26:43Z","timestamp":1787218003254,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787097600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787184000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003252","name":"Lund University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003252","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Psychol"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Accurate psychological evaluation is crucial for early detection, intervention and evaluation of mental health disorders. The validity and reliability of psychological evaluation methods have been systematically researched for many decades. However, assessment methods used by mental health professionals in clinical settings have not consistently been empirically documented. This study examines the extent to which standardized assessment methods are used in clinical settings, and clinicians\u2019 attitudes toward these practices. Clinicians (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u2009585) from the U.S. (25%), the U.K. (28%), the Netherlands (18%), Sweden (22%), and other countries (7%) completed an online survey reporting their depression assessment methods. Clinicians reported using many different\n                    <jats:italic>data collection methods<\/jats:italic>\n                    (e.g., unstructured clinical interviews [83%], rating scales [83%]) in various combinations. A majority (80%) primarily employed clinical data combination methods, as opposed to statistical\n                    <jats:italic>data combination methods<\/jats:italic>\n                    (11%). Although they were confident in their assessments, the time to carry out assessments varied widely (\n                    <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009=\u200987 [\n                    <jats:italic>SD\u2009=<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009108] minutes). 77% agreed on the importance of standardized, valid, and reliable assessments, and 43% reported interest in receiving AI decision-support. We did not find many significant cross-cultural differences. A majority of clinicians have not fully adopted standardized assessment methods. Predominant reliance on clinical judgment suggests a disconnect between best practices supported by research and everyday clinical practice.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-026-05036-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T23:33:33Z","timestamp":1787096013000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Clinicians\u2019 practices and attitudes toward depression assessment: a cross-sectional survey study"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4730-3847","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Damon","family":"Navandi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Veerle C.","family":"Eijsbroek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clara","family":"Wiebel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron","family":"Marker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katarina","family":"Kjell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marc L.","family":"Molendijk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth C.","family":"Stade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oscar N. E.","family":"Kjell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"5036_CR1","first-page":"93","volume":"30","author":"H Shen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Shen H, Zhang L, Xu C, Zhu J, Chen M, Fang Y. Analysis of Misdiagnosis of Bipolar Disorder in An Outpatient Setting. Shanghai Archives Psychiat. 2018;30(2):93\u2013101. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5936046\/.","journal-title":"Shanghai Archives Psychiat"},{"issue":"1","key":"5036_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadr.2021.100231","volume":"6","author":"B Stahnke","year":"2021","unstructured":"Stahnke B. A systematic review of misdiagnosis in those with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Affect Disorders Rep. 2021;6(1):100231. Available from: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2666915321001578.","journal-title":"J Affect Disorders Rep"},{"issue":"3","key":"5036_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.32872\/cpe.10075","volume":"5","author":"EI Fried","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fried EI, Proppert RKK, Rieble CL. Building an Early Warning System for Depression: Rationale, Objectives, and Methods of the WARN-D Study. Clin Psychol Europe. 2023;5(3):1\u201325. Available from: https:\/\/cpe.psychopen.eu\/index.php\/cpe\/article\/view\/10075.","journal-title":"Clin Psychol Europe"},{"key":"5036_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eijsbroek VC, Katarina Kjell, Schwartz A, Boehnke JR, Fried EI, Klein DN, et al. The LEADING Guideline. Reporting Standards for Expert Panel, Best-Estimate Diagnosis, and Longitudinal Expert All Data (LEAD) Studies. medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory). 2024.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.03.19.24304526"},{"key":"5036_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091419","volume":"3","author":"J Hunsley","year":"2007","unstructured":"Hunsley J, Mash EJ. Evidence-based assessment. Ann Rev Clin Psychol. 2007;3:29\u201351. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/17716047.","journal-title":"Ann Rev Clin Psychol"},{"key":"5036_CR6","volume-title":"Clinical versus statistical prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence","author":"PE Meehl","year":"1954","unstructured":"Meehl PE. Clinical versus statistical prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1954."},{"issue":"7","key":"5036_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.3109\/08039488.2015.1008568","volume":"69","author":"A Pettersson","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pettersson A, Bostr\u00f6m KB, Gustavsson P, Ekselius L. Which instruments to support diagnosis of depression have sufficient accuracy? A systematic review. Nord J Psychiatry. 2015;69(7):497\u2013508.","journal-title":"Nord J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"2","key":"5036_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191115604353","volume":"24","author":"JR Cook","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cook JR, Hausman EM, Jensen-Doss A, Hawley KM. Assessment Practices of Child Clinicians. Assessment. 2016;24(2):210\u201321.","journal-title":"Assessment"},{"issue":"11","key":"5036_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-019-1094-0","volume":"21","author":"S Graham","year":"2019","unstructured":"Graham S, Depp C, Lee EE, Nebeker C, Tu X, Kim HC, et al. Artificial Intelligence for Mental Health and Mental Illnesses: an Overview. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2019;21(11):116.","journal-title":"Curr Psychiatry Rep"},{"key":"5036_CR10","first-page":"115667","volume":"333","author":"NE Oscar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Oscar NE, Kjell K, Kjell H. Andrew Schwartz. Beyond Rating Scales: With Targeted Evaluation, Language Models are Poised for Psychological Assessment. Psychiatry Res. 2023;333:115667\u20137.","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"9","key":"5036_CR11","first-page":"856","volume":"6","author":"EE Lee","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lee EE, Torous J, De Choudhury M, Depp CA, Graham SA, Kim HC, et al. Artificial Intelligence for Mental Healthcare: Clinical Applications, Barriers, Facilitators, and Artificial Wisdom. Biol Psychiatry: Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2021;6(9):856\u201364.","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry: Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging"},{"issue":"09","key":"5036_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291719000151","volume":"49","author":"ABR Shatte","year":"2019","unstructured":"Shatte ABR, Hutchinson DM, Teague SJ. Machine learning in mental health: a scoping review of methods and applications. Psychological Med. 2019;49(09):1426\u201348. Available from: https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/journals\/psychological-medicine\/article\/abs\/machine-learning-in-mental-health-a-scoping-review-of-methods-and-applications\/0B70B1C827B3A4604C1C01026049F7D9.","journal-title":"Psychological Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"5036_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2012.12.003","volume":"57","author":"CC Bennett","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bennett CC, Hauser K. Artificial intelligence framework for simulating clinical decision-making: A Markov decision process approach. Artif Intell Med. 2013;57(1):9\u201319.","journal-title":"Artif Intell Med"},{"issue":"7","key":"5036_CR14","first-page":"1","volume":"1","author":"AE Mueller","year":"2015","unstructured":"Mueller AE, Segal DL. Structured versus Semistructured versus Unstructured Interviews. Encyclopedia Clin Psychol. 2015;1(7):1\u20137.","journal-title":"Encyclopedia Clin Psychol"},{"issue":"3","key":"5036_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1177\/0011000005285875","volume":"34","author":"S \u00c6gisd\u00f3ttir","year":"2006","unstructured":"\u00c6gisd\u00f3ttir S, White MJ, Spengler PM, Maugherman AS, Anderson LA, Cook RS, et al. The Meta-Analysis of Clinical Judgment Project: Fifty-Six Years of Accumulated Research on Clinical Versus Statistical Prediction. Couns Psychol. 2006;34(3):341\u201382.","journal-title":"Couns Psychol"},{"issue":"4899","key":"5036_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1668","DOI":"10.1126\/science.2648573","volume":"243","author":"R Dawes","year":"1989","unstructured":"Dawes R, Faust D, Meehl P. Clinical versus actuarial judgment. Science. 1989;243(4899):1668\u201374. Available from: http:\/\/meehl.umn.edu\/sites\/meehl.dl.umn.edu\/files\/138cstixdawesfaustmeehl.pdf.","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"5036_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2019.103506","volume":"123","author":"RJ DeRubeis","year":"2019","unstructured":"DeRubeis RJ. The history, current status, and possible future of precision mental health. Behav Res Ther. 2019;123:103506.","journal-title":"Behav Res Ther"},{"key":"5036_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Egon Brunswik, Cooksey RW. The Conceptual Framework of Psychology [1952]. 2001. p. 225\u201337.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195130133.003.0013"},{"issue":"6","key":"5036_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1037\/h0040736","volume":"71","author":"KR Hammond","year":"1964","unstructured":"Hammond KR, Hursch CJ, Todd FJ. Analyzing the components of clinical inference. Psychol Rev. 1964;71(6):438\u201356.","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"issue":"3","key":"5036_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.134.3.404","volume":"134","author":"N Karelaia","year":"2008","unstructured":"Karelaia N, Hogarth RM. Determinants of linear judgment: A meta-analysis of lens model studies. Psychol Bull. 2008;134(3):404\u201326.","journal-title":"Psychol Bull"},{"issue":"2","key":"5036_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-8971.2.2.293","volume":"2","author":"WM Grove","year":"1996","unstructured":"Grove WM, Meehl PE. Comparative efficiency of informal (subjective, impressionistic) and formal (mechanical, algorithmic) prediction procedures: The clinical-statistical controversy. Psychol Public Policy Law. 1996;2(2):293\u2013323.","journal-title":"Psychol Public Policy Law"},{"issue":"5","key":"5036_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1037\/pro0000309","volume":"51","author":"SM Bowes","year":"2020","unstructured":"Bowes SM, Ammirati RJ, Costello TH, Basterfield C, Lilienfeld SO. Cognitive biases, heuristics, and logical fallacies in clinical practice: A brief field guide for practicing clinicians and supervisors. Prof Psychology: Res Pract. 2020;51(5):435\u201345.","journal-title":"Prof Psychology: Res Pract"},{"key":"5036_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saposnik G, Redelmeier D, Ruff CC, Tobler PN. Cognitive biases associated with medical decisions: a systematic review. BMC Med Inf Decis Mak. 2016;16(1):138. Available from: http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186\/s12911-016-0377-1.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12911-016-0377-1"},{"issue":"12","key":"5036_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000673","volume":"31","author":"HN Garb","year":"2019","unstructured":"Garb HN, Wood JM. Methodological advances in statistical prediction. Psychol Assess. 2019;31(12):1456\u201366.","journal-title":"Psychol Assess"},{"issue":"9","key":"5036_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1500523","volume":"372","author":"FS Collins","year":"2015","unstructured":"Collins FS, Varmus H. A New Initiative on Precision Medicine. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(9):793\u20135.","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"5036_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.7861\/futurehosp.6-2-94","volume":"6","author":"T Davenport","year":"2019","unstructured":"Davenport T, Kalakota R. The Potential for Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare. Future Healthc J. 2019;6(2):94\u20138. Available from: https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC6616181\/.","journal-title":"Future Healthc J"},{"key":"5036_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali GC, Ryan G, De Silva MJ. Validated Screening Tools for Common Mental Disorders in Low and Middle Income Countries: A Systematic Review. PLOS ONE. 2016;11(6):e0156939. Burns JK, editor.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0156939"},{"issue":"3","key":"5036_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/ckz233","volume":"30","author":"JJF Breedvelt","year":"2020","unstructured":"Breedvelt JJF, Zamperoni V, South E, Uphoff EP, Gilbody S, Bockting CLH, et al. A systematic review of mental health measurement scales for evaluating the effects of mental health prevention interventions. Eur J Pub Health. 2020;30(3):510\u20136.","journal-title":"Eur J Pub Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"5036_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-1781(01)00317-1","volume":"105","author":"PR Miller","year":"2001","unstructured":"Miller PR, Dasher R, Collins R, Griffiths P, Brown F. Inpatient diagnostic assessments: 1. Accuracy of structured vs. unstructured interviews. Psychiatry Res. 2001;105(3):255\u201364.","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"208","key":"5036_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2016.10.019","volume":"208","author":"EI Fried","year":"2017","unstructured":"Fried EI. The 52 symptoms of major depression: Lack of content overlap among seven common depression scales. J Affect Disord. 2017;208(208):191\u20137.","journal-title":"J Affect Disord"},{"issue":"8","key":"5036_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30191-7","volume":"7","author":"A Chevance","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chevance A, Ravaud P, Tomlinson A, Le Berre C, Teufer B, Touboul S, et al. Identifying outcomes for depression that matter to patients, informal caregivers, and health-care professionals: qualitative content analysis of a large international online survey. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(8):692\u2013702.","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"issue":"10","key":"5036_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.12m07775","volume":"73","author":"M Zimmerman","year":"2012","unstructured":"Zimmerman M, Martinez JH, Friedman M, Boerescu DA, Attiullah N, Toba C. How Can We Use Depression Severity to Guide Treatment Selection When Measures of Depression Categorize Patients Differently? J Clin Psychiatry. 2012;73(10):1287\u201391.","journal-title":"J Clin Psychiatry"},{"issue":"1","key":"5036_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.20213","volume":"62","author":"AB Shafer","year":"2005","unstructured":"Shafer AB. Meta-analysis of the factor structures of four depression questionnaires: Beck, CES-D, Hamilton, and Zung. J Clin Psychol. 2005;62(1):123\u201346.","journal-title":"J Clin Psychol"},{"key":"5036_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Loo HM, de Jonge P, Romeijn JW, Kessler RC, Schoevers RA. Data-driven subtypes of major depressive disorder: a systematic review. BMC Med. 2012;10(1):156. Available from: http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186\/1741-7015-10-156.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-10-156"},{"issue":"11","key":"5036_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000275","volume":"28","author":"EI Fried","year":"2016","unstructured":"Fried EI, van Borkulo CD, Epskamp S, Schoevers RA, Tuerlinckx F, Borsboom D. Measuring depression over time. Or not? Lack of unidimensionality and longitudinal measurement invariance in four common rating scales of depression. Psychol Assess. 2016;28(11):1354\u201367.","journal-title":"Psychol Assess"},{"issue":"1","key":"5036_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.12.1.19","volume":"12","author":"WM Grove","year":"2000","unstructured":"Grove WM, Zald DH, Lebow BS, Snitz BE, Nelson C. Clinical versus mechanical prediction: A meta-analysis. Psychol Assess. 2000;12(1):19\u201330.","journal-title":"Psychol Assess"},{"key":"5036_CR37","unstructured":"ICD-11. Geneva: World Health Organization; Available from: https:\/\/icd.who.int.\u00a0Accessed 26 April 2022."},{"key":"5036_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. 2013. p. 5(5).","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"issue":"2","key":"5036_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20525","volume":"17","author":"MB First","year":"2018","unstructured":"First MB, Rebello TJ, Keeley JW, Bhargava R, Dai Y, Kulygina M, et al. Do mental health professionals use diagnostic classifications the way we think they do? A global survey. World Psychiatry. 2018;17(2):187\u201395.","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"5036_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danielson M, M\u00e5nsdotter A, Fransson E, Dalsgaard S, Larsson J-O. Clinicians\u2019 attitudes toward standardized assessment and diagnosis within child and adolescent psychiatry. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Mental Health. 2019;13(1):9. Available from: http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186\/s13034-019-0269-0.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-019-0269-0"},{"issue":"6","key":"5036_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2010.517169","volume":"39","author":"A Jensen-Doss","year":"2010","unstructured":"Jensen-Doss A, Hawley KM. Understanding Barriers to Evidence-Based Assessment: Clinician Attitudes Toward Standardized Assessment Tools. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2010;39(6):885\u201396. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3058768\/.","journal-title":"J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol"},{"issue":"6","key":"5036_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1007\/s10488-011-0334-3","volume":"38","author":"A Jensen-Doss","year":"2011","unstructured":"Jensen-Doss A, Hawley KM. Understanding Clinicians\u2019 Diagnostic Practices: Attitudes Toward the Utility of Diagnosis and Standardized Diagnostic Tools. Adm Policy Mental Health Mental Health Serv Res. 2011;38(6):476\u201385. Available from: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC6114089\/.","journal-title":"Adm Policy Mental Health Mental Health Serv Res"},{"key":"5036_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bohman B. Clinicians\u2019 perceptions and practices of diagnostic assessment in psychiatric services. BMC Psychiatry. 2023;23(1):191. Available from: http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186\/s12888-023-04689-w.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-023-04689-w"},{"key":"5036_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cho E, Tugendrajch SK, Marriott BR, Hawley KM. Evidence-Based Assessment in Routine Mental Health Services for Youths. Psychiatric Serv. 2020;72(3):appi.ps.2019005.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ps.201900537"},{"key":"5036_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of Global Mortality and Burden of Disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Medicine. 2006;3(11):e442. Available from: https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/17132052\/.\u00a0Samet J, editor.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030442"},{"key":"5036_CR46","unstructured":"Prevalence. and variability of current depressive disorder in 27 European countries: a population-based study. Lancet Public Health. 2021; Available from: https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S2468266721000475#bib9."},{"issue":"1","key":"5036_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","volume":"67","author":"D Bates","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bates D, M\u00e4chler M, Bolker B, Walker S. Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw. 2015;67(1):1\u201348.","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"issue":"13","key":"5036_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v082.i13","volume":"82","author":"A Kuznetsova","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kuznetsova A, Brockhoff PB, Christensen RHB. LmerTest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. J Stat Softw. 2017;82(13):1\u201326.","journal-title":"J Stat Softw"},{"key":"5036_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boswell JF, Kraus DR, Miller SD, Lambert MJ. Implementing routine outcome monitoring in clinical practice: Benefits, challenges, and solutions. Psychotherapy Research. 2013;25(1):6\u201319.","DOI":"10.1080\/10503307.2013.817696"},{"key":"5036_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilbody SM, House AO, Sheldon TA. Psychiatrists in the UK do not use outcomes measures. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2002;180(2):101\u20133.","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.180.2.101"},{"issue":"1","key":"5036_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2012.12070999","volume":"170","author":"DA Regier","year":"2013","unstructured":"Regier DA, Narrow WE, Clarke DE, Kraemer HC, Kuramoto SJ, Kuhl EA, et al. DSM-5 Field Trials in the United States and Canada, Part II: Test-Retest Reliability of Selected Categorical Diagnoses. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(1):59\u201370.","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"issue":"76","key":"5036_CR52","first-page":"1","volume":"11","author":"JJ Newson","year":"2020","unstructured":"Newson JJ, Hunter D, Thiagarajan TC. The heterogeneity of mental health assessment. Front Psychiat. 2020;11(76):1\u201324. Available from: https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00076\/full.","journal-title":"Front Psychiat"},{"issue":"3","key":"5036_CR53","first-page":"135","volume":"4","author":"DA Santor","year":"2006","unstructured":"Santor DA, Gregus M, Welch A. FOCUS ARTICLE: Eight Decades of Measurement in Depression. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Res Perspective. 2006;4(3):135\u201355.","journal-title":"Measurement: Interdisciplinary Res Perspective"},{"issue":"1","key":"5036_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0300-7","volume":"25","author":"EJ Topol","year":"2019","unstructured":"Topol EJ. High-performance medicine: the Convergence of Human and Artificial Intelligence. Nat Med. 2019;25(1):44\u201356. Available from: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41591-018-0300-7.","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"5036_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leslie D. Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety A guide for the responsible design and implementation of AI systems in the public sector Dr David Leslie Public Policy Programme. Understanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety . 2019. Available from: https:\/\/www.turing.ac.uk\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-06\/understanding_artificial_intelligence_ethics_and_safety.pdf.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3403301"},{"key":"5036_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.115724","volume":"333","author":"C Blease","year":"2024","unstructured":"Blease C, Worthen A, Torous J. Psychiatrists\u2019 Experiences and Opinions of Generative Artificial Intelligence in Mental Healthcare: An Online Mixed Methods Survey. Psychiatry Res. 2024;333:115724\u20134.","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res"},{"issue":"7","key":"5036_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0200103","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0200103","volume":"13","author":"PR Heck","year":"2018","unstructured":"Heck PR, Simons DJ, Chabris CF. T <>van Amelsvoort editor 2018 65% of Americans believe they are above average in intelligence: Results of two nationally representative surveys. PLoS ONE 13 7 e0200103.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"issue":"4","key":"5036_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1037\/cou0000105","volume":"62","author":"DJ Miller","year":"2015","unstructured":"Miller DJ, Spengler ES, Spengler PM. A meta-analysis of confidence and judgment accuracy in clinical decision making. J Couns Psychol. 2015;62(4):553\u201367.","journal-title":"J Couns Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"5036_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.23415","volume":"79","author":"BK Bergquist","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bergquist BK, Keen MA, Ingram PB, Morris NM, Schmidt AT. Doctoral students\u2019 intention to use assessments in their career: The incremental role of self-reported competence. J Clin Psychol. 2022;79(2):374\u201390.","journal-title":"J Clin Psychol"},{"issue":"2","key":"5036_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2015.2705","volume":"73","author":"TS Betancourt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Betancourt TS, Chambers DA. Optimizing an Era of Global Mental Health Implementation Science. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(2):99.","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"issue":"3","key":"5036_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fhj.2024.100162","volume":"11","author":"R Misra","year":"2024","unstructured":"Misra R, Keane PA, Hogg HDJ. How should we train clinicians for artificial intelligence in healthcare? Future Healthc J. 2024;11(3):100162.","journal-title":"Future Healthc J"}],"container-title":["BMC Psychology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05036-w","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05036-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05036-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T09:02:36Z","timestamp":1787216556000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05036-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5036"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05036-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["2050-7283"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2050-7283","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"23 February 2026","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 June 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"19 August 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"All participants provided informed consent prior to participation in the study. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and participants were informed that they could withdraw at any time without providing a reason.The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.The study received ethical approval from Leiden University (2022-08-10-M.L. Molendijk-V5-4037) and was exempt from ethical approval at the University of Pennsylvania (United States). The study is deemed exempt from requiring ethical approval according to Swedish Law (s\u00a7 3\u20134 of the Act [2003:460] on the ethical review of research involving humans in Sweden).","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"O.N.E. Kjell and K. Kjell co-founded a start-up that uses computational language assessments to assess mental health problems. E.C. Stade has received fees for advising a start-up that uses computational language assessment to measure psychological constructs. The other authors report having no conflicts of interest with respect to the contents, authorship, or publication of this article.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"1227"}}