{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T23:06:53Z","timestamp":1789686413579,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782777600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789689600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":80,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Psychol"],"DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-026-05085-1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T12:12:31Z","timestamp":1782821551000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Psychometric evaluation of gender norm beliefs and attitudes among students in Ghana: evidence from the GNAS and GEM Scales"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8465-4671","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bright","family":"Addo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kofi Osei","family":"Akuoko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Dwumah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan Mensah","family":"Dapaah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"5085_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18356\/9789211068092","volume-title":"The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023","author":"United Nations","year":"2023","unstructured":"United Nations. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023. New York: United Nations; 2023. https:\/\/unstats.un.org\/sdgs\/report\/2023\/."},{"key":"5085_CR2","volume-title":"Ghana Voluntary National Review Report on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development","author":"Government of Ghana","year":"2019","unstructured":"Government of Ghana. Ghana Voluntary National Review Report on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Accra: Government of Ghana; 2019."},{"key":"5085_CR3","volume-title":"Global Gender Gap Report 2023","author":"World Economic Forum","year":"2023","unstructured":"World Economic Forum. Global Gender Gap Report 2023. Geneva: World Economic Forum; 2023. https:\/\/www3.weforum.org\/docs\/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf."},{"issue":"4","key":"5085_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s12546-021-09258-0","volume":"38","author":"B Addo","year":"2021","unstructured":"Addo B, Berchie R. Attitude towards gender norms in Ghana: understanding the dynamics among men and women in intimate relationships. J Popul Res. 2021;38(4):197\u2013220. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12546-021-09258-0.","journal-title":"J Popul Res"},{"key":"5085_CR5","volume-title":"Shakespeare lives in Ghana: roles, representations and perceptions of women in contemporary Ghanaian society","author":"NA Anyidoho","year":"2016","unstructured":"Anyidoho NA, Addoquaye Tagoe C, Adjei M, Appiah E, Yeboah-Banin AA, Crentsil A, et al. Shakespeare lives in Ghana: roles, representations and perceptions of women in contemporary Ghanaian society. Accra: Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, University of Ghana; 2016."},{"issue":"1","key":"5085_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-08825-z","volume":"20","author":"Y Sikweyiya","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sikweyiya Y, Addo-Lartey AA, Alangea DO, Dako-Gyeke P, Chirwa ED, Coker-Appiah D, et al. Patriarchy and gender-inequitable attitudes as drivers of intimate partner violence against women in the central region of Ghana. BMC Public Health. 2020;20(1):1492. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12889-020-08825-z.","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"5085_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1177\/1097184X06298778","volume":"10","author":"J Pulerwitz","year":"2008","unstructured":"Pulerwitz J, Barker G. Measuring attitudes toward gender norms among young men in Brazil: development and psychometric evaluation of the GEM scale. Men Masculinities. 2008;10(3):322\u201338. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1097184X06298778.","journal-title":"Men Masculinities"},{"issue":"1","key":"5085_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4755-11-41","volume":"11","author":"A Mishra","year":"2014","unstructured":"Mishra A, Nanda P, Speizer IS, Calhoun LM, Zimmerman A, Bhardwaj R. Men\u2019s attitudes on gender equality and their contraceptive use in Uttar Pradesh India. Reprod Health. 2014;11(1):41. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1742-4755-11-41.","journal-title":"Reprod Health"},{"key":"5085_CR9","volume-title":"Compendium of gender scales","author":"G Nanda","year":"2011","unstructured":"Nanda G. Compendium of gender scales. Washington, DC: FHI 360\/C-Change; 2011."},{"issue":"2S2","key":"5085_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2016.09.027","volume":"60","author":"L Vu","year":"2017","unstructured":"Vu L, Pulerwitz J, Burnett-Zieman B, Banura C, Okal J, Yam E. Inequitable gender norms from early adolescence to young adulthood in Uganda: tool validation and differences across age groups. J Adolesc Health. 2017;60(2S2):S15\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2016.09.027.","journal-title":"J Adolesc Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"5085_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1080\/17441692.2012.672581","volume":"7","author":"R Stephenson","year":"2012","unstructured":"Stephenson R, Bartel D, Rubardt M. Constructs of power and equity and their association with contraceptive use among men and women in rural Ethiopia and Kenya. Glob Public Health. 2012;7(6):618\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17441692.2012.672581.","journal-title":"Glob Public Health"},{"issue":"3","key":"5085_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-6402.00021","volume":"25","author":"C Waszak","year":"2001","unstructured":"Waszak C, Severy LJ, Kafafi L, Badawi I. Fertility behavior and psychological stress: the mediating influence of gender norm beliefs among Egyptian women. Psychol Women Q. 2001;25(3):197\u2013208. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1471-6402.00021.","journal-title":"Psychol Women Q"},{"issue":"1","key":"5085_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/jedm.12000","volume":"50","author":"MT Kane","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kane MT. Validating the interpretations and uses of test scores. J Educ Meas. 2013;50(1):1\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jedm.12000.","journal-title":"J Educ Meas"},{"key":"5085_CR14","volume-title":"Sampling techniques","author":"WG Cochran","year":"1977","unstructured":"Cochran WG. Sampling techniques. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley; 1977.","edition":"3"},{"issue":"1","key":"5085_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1002\/bimj.201300048","volume":"56","author":"SH Jung","year":"2014","unstructured":"Jung SH. Stratified Fisher\u2019s exact test and its sample size calculation. Biom J. 2014;56(1):129\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/bimj.201300048.","journal-title":"Biom J"},{"key":"5085_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118445112.stat05999.pub2","volume-title":"Wiley StatsRef: statistics reference online","author":"VL Parsons","year":"2017","unstructured":"Parsons VL. Stratified sampling. Wiley StatsRef: statistics reference online. Hoboken: Wiley; 2017. pp. 1\u201311. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9781118445112.stat05999.pub2."},{"issue":"2","key":"5085_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1207\/S15328007SEM0902_5","volume":"9","author":"GW Cheung","year":"2002","unstructured":"Cheung GW, Rensvold RB. Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Struct Equ Model. 2002;9(2):233\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/S15328007SEM0902_5.","journal-title":"Struct Equ Model"},{"issue":"4","key":"5085_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02296207","volume":"44","author":"U Olsson","year":"1979","unstructured":"Olsson U. Maximum likelihood estimation of the polychoric correlation coefficient. Psychometrika. 1979;44(4):443\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF02296207.","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"key":"5085_CR19","unstructured":"Muth\u00e9n LK, Muth\u00e9n BO. Mplus statistical analysis with latent variables: user\u2019s guide. 8th ed. Los Angeles: Muth\u00e9n & Muth\u00e9n; 1998\u20132017."},{"issue":"1","key":"5085_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10705519909540118","volume":"6","author":"L Hu","year":"1999","unstructured":"Hu L, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Model. 1999;6(1):1\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10705519909540118.","journal-title":"Struct Equ Model"},{"key":"5085_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410601087","volume-title":"Test theory: a unified treatment","author":"RP McDonald","year":"1999","unstructured":"McDonald RP. Test theory: a unified treatment. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1999. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781410601087."},{"key":"5085_CR22","volume-title":"A handbook on the theory and methods of differential item functioning (DIF): logistic regression modeling as a unitary framework for binary and Likert-type (ordinal) item scores","author":"BD Zumbo","year":"1999","unstructured":"Zumbo BD. A handbook on the theory and methods of differential item functioning (DIF): logistic regression modeling as a unitary framework for binary and Likert-type (ordinal) item scores. Ottawa: Directorate of Human Resources Research and Evaluation, Department of National Defense; 1999."},{"key":"5085_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01330","volume":"9","author":"J Cerrato","year":"2018","unstructured":"Cerrato J, Cifre E. Gender inequality in household chores and work-family conflict. Front Psychol. 2018;9:1330. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01330.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"issue":"4","key":"5085_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2000.01208.x","volume":"62","author":"S Coltrane","year":"2000","unstructured":"Coltrane S. Research on household labor: modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work. J Marriage Fam. 2000;62(4):1208\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2000.01208.x.","journal-title":"J Marriage Fam"},{"issue":"3","key":"5085_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"813","DOI":"10.1111\/padr.12430","volume":"47","author":"J Baten","year":"2021","unstructured":"Baten J, de Haas M, Kempter E, Meier zu Selhausen F. Educational gender inequality in sub-Saharan Africa: a long-term perspective. Popul Dev Rev. 2021;47(3):813\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/padr.12430.","journal-title":"Popul Dev Rev"},{"key":"5085_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhou Z. Addressing gender inequality in education in sub-Saharan Africa: barriers, policy reforms, and cultural shifts. In: Advances in Social Science. Educ Humanit Res. 2024;858\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2991\/978-2-38476-309-2_103.","DOI":"10.2991\/978-2-38476-309-2_103"}],"container-title":["BMC Psychology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05085-1","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05085-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05085-1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T22:48:10Z","timestamp":1789685290000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05085-1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["5085"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40359-026-05085-1","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-8158644\/v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2050-7283"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2050-7283","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"19 November 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"24 June 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"30 June 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee of the College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Approval No. HuSSREC\/AP\/162\/VOL.4). All relevant ethical issues related to the study were carefully addressed to ensure the protection and respect of all participants involved, adhering to the ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research as outlined in the Belmont Report (The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1978) and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Prior to data collection, participants were provided with a detailed informed consent form outlining the study objectives, procedures, and their rights. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents were informed that they could withdraw at any stage without any negative consequences. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before completing the questionnaire. Throughout the research process, strict measures were implemented to ensure confidentiality and protect participants\u2019 personal information in accordance with ethical standards.","order":1,"name":"Ethics","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","label":"Consent for publication","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","label":"Competing interests","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}}],"article-number":"1355"}}