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This knowledge gap is of paramount clinical significance as TBI patients are highly susceptible to alterations in the gut microbiota by antibiotic exposure. Antibiotic-induced gut microbial dysbiosis established prior to TBI significantly worsened neuronal loss and reduced microglia activation in the injured hippocampus with concomitant changes in fear memory response. Importantly, antibiotic exposure for 1\u00a0week after TBI reduced cortical infiltration of Ly6C<jats:sup>high<\/jats:sup> monocytes, increased microglial pro-inflammatory markers, and decreased T lymphocyte infiltration, which persisted through 1\u00a0month post-injury. Moreover, microbial dysbiosis was associated with reduced neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus 1\u00a0week after TBI. By 3\u00a0months after injury (11\u00a0weeks after discontinuation of the antibiotics), we observed increased microglial proliferation, increased hippocampal neuronal loss, and modulation of fear memory response. These data demonstrate that antibiotic-induced gut microbial dysbiosis after TBI impacts neuroinflammation, neurogenesis, and fear memory and implicate gut microbial modulation as a potential therapeutic intervention for TBI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-021-01137-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T11:04:04Z","timestamp":1615374244000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":122,"title":["Gut microbial dysbiosis after traumatic brain injury modulates the immune response and impairs neurogenesis"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Marta","family":"Celorrio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miguel A.","family":"Abellanas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Rhodes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victoria","family":"Goodwin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennie","family":"Moritz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sangeetha","family":"Vadivelu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leran","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rachel","family":"Rodgers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sophia","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ilakkia","family":"Anabayan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Camryn","family":"Payne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandra M.","family":"Perry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Megan T.","family":"Baldridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria S.","family":"Aymerich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashley","family":"Steed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5854-5092","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart H.","family":"Friess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"1137_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1628-8","volume":"16","author":"MA Abellanas","year":"2019","unstructured":"Abellanas MA, Zamarbide M, Basurco L, Luquin E, Garcia-Granero M, Clavero P, San Martin-Uriz P, Vilas A, Mengual E, Hervas-Stubbs S et al (2019) Midbrain microglia mediate a specific immunosuppressive response under inflammatory conditions. 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