{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T10:58:48Z","timestamp":1773226728907,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,25]],"date-time":"2021-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611532800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,25]],"date-time":"2021-01-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611532800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Military Med Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The present moment is not the first time that America has found itself at war with a pathogen during a time of international conflict. Between crowded barracks at home and trenches abroad, wartime conditions helped enable the spread of influenza in the fall of 1918 during World War I such that an estimated 20\u201340% of U.S. military members were infected. While the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is unparalleled for most of today\u2019s population, it is essential to not view it as unprecedented lest the lessons of past pandemics and their effect on the American military be forgotten. This article provides a historical perspective on the effect of the most notable antecedent pandemic, the Spanish Influenza epidemic, on American forces with the goal of understanding the interrelationship of global pandemics and the military, highlighting the unique challenges of the current pandemic, and examining how the American military has fought back against pandemics both at home and abroad, both 100\u2009years ago and today.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40779-021-00299-3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,24]],"date-time":"2021-01-24T21:03:41Z","timestamp":1611522221000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Combating an invisible enemy: the American military response to global pandemics"],"prefix":"10.1016","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2847-7113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lauren K.","family":"Dutton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter C.","family":"Rhee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alexander Y.","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard J.","family":"Ehrlichman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard J.","family":"Shemin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"78","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"299_CR1","unstructured":"Defence Force moves troops from Iraq and Afghanistan as coronavirus spreads. The Canberra Times. https:\/\/www.canberratimes.com.au\/story\/6693138\/defence-force-moves-troops-from-iraq-and-afghanistan-as-coronavirus-spreads\/. Accessed 30 March 2020."},{"key":"299_CR2","unstructured":"Coronavirus. The British Army. https:\/\/www.army.mod.uk\/news-and-events\/covid-19\/. Accessed 30 March 2020."},{"key":"299_CR3","unstructured":"New Zealand withdraws all military personnel from Camp Taji in Iraq. Newshub. https:\/\/www.newshub.co.nz\/home\/new-zealand\/2020\/03\/new-zealand-withdraws-all-military-personnel-from-camp-taji-in-iraq.html. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR4","unstructured":"How are military forces responding to COVID-19? World Economic Forum. https:\/\/www.weforum.org\/agenda\/2020\/04\/coronavirus-european-armed-forces\/. Accessed 08 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR5","unstructured":"COVID-19: Most Canadian military personnel in Iraq mission being pulled out, coming home. Ottawa Citizen. https:\/\/ottawacitizen.com\/news\/national\/defence-watch\/covid-19-most-canadian-military-personnel-in-iraq-mission-being-pulled-out-coming-home\/. Accessed 13 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR6","unstructured":"UK personnel to drawdown from Iraq. gov.UK. https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/uk-personnel-to-drawdown-from-iraq. Accessed 13 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR7","unstructured":"Where U.S. troops and military assets are deployed in the Middle East. Axios. https:\/\/www.axios.com\/where-us-troops-deployed-middle-east-5e96fdb2-c7ba-4f26-90b4-7bf452f83847.html. Accessed 30 March 2020."},{"key":"299_CR8","unstructured":"Overseas Stop Movement Order in response to COVID-19. U.S. Department Of Defense. https:\/\/www.defense.gov\/Newsroom\/Releases\/Release\/Article\/2125725\/overseas-stop-movement-order-in-response-to-covid-19\/. Accessed 30 March 2020."},{"key":"299_CR9","unstructured":"USFK service member confirmed with COVID-19. United States Forces Korea. https:\/\/www.usfk.mil\/Media\/News\/Article\/2094200\/usfk-service-member-confirmed-with-covid-19\/. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR10","unstructured":"The wife of the first service member to test positive for coronavirus is also infected. Task & Purpose. https:\/\/taskandpurpose.com\/news\/wife-service-member-korea-coronavirus. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR11","unstructured":"The military\u2019s coronavirus cases: the latest rundown. Military.com. https:\/\/www.military.com\/daily-news\/2020\/03\/16\/militarys-coronavirus-cases-latest-rundown.html. Accessed 12 August 2020."},{"key":"299_CR12","unstructured":"First U.S. service member dies from coronavirus. Air Force Magazine. https:\/\/www.airforcemag.com\/dod-deploys-supplies-as-field-hospitals-stand-up-at-two-joint-bases\/. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR13","unstructured":"Lehigh Valley man who served in Army National Guard is first service member to die of coronavirus. WLVR FM. https:\/\/www.wlvr.org\/2020\/04\/lehigh-valley-man-who-served-in-army-national-guard-is-first-service-member-to-die-of-coronavirus\/#.XoSwU9JKhaQ. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR14","unstructured":"Sailor from carrier Theodore Roosevelt dies of COVID-19. Military.com. https:\/\/www.military.com\/daily-news\/2020\/04\/13\/sailor-carrier-theodore-roosevelt-dies-covid-19.html. Accessed 14 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR15","unstructured":"French carrier surpasses Theodore Roosevelt with over 1,000 confirmed cases of COVID-19. Navy Times. https:\/\/www.navytimes.com\/news\/your-navy\/2020\/04\/20\/french-carrier-surpasses-theodore-roosevelt-with-over-1000-confirmed-cases-of-covid-19\/. Accessed 23 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR16","unstructured":"Theodore Roosevelt sailors re-test positive for coronavirus. Navy Times. https:\/\/www.navytimes.com\/news\/your-navy\/2020\/05\/15\/five-theodore-roosevelt-sailors-re-test-positive-for-covid-19\/. Accessed 23 June 2020."},{"key":"299_CR17","unstructured":"Captain of U.S.S. Theodore Roosevelt pleads for help as coronavirus spreads onboard. The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2020\/03\/31\/us\/politics\/coronavirus-aircraft-carrier-theodore-roosevelt.html. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR18","unstructured":"Harry S. Truman Strike Group conducts sustainment underway. Navy.mil. https:\/\/www.navy.mil\/submit\/display.asp?story_id=112619. Accessed 17 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR19","unstructured":"Trump, Esper send off USNS Comfort to join New York\u2019s COVID-19 fight. U.S. Department Of Defense. https:\/\/www.defense.gov\/Explore\/News\/Article\/Article\/2129502\/trump-esper-send-off-usns-comfort-to-join-new-yorks-covid-19-fight\/. Accessed 30 March 2020."},{"key":"299_CR20","unstructured":"Comfort, Javits Center open care to COVID-19 patients. U.S. Department of Defense. https:\/\/www.defense.gov\/Explore\/News\/Article\/Article\/2140535\/comfort-javits-center-open-care-to-covid-19-patients\/. Accessed 13 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR21","unstructured":"Latest National Guard coronavirus update: troop count at 41,600. Military Times. https:\/\/www.militarytimes.com\/news\/coronavirus\/2020\/04\/22\/latest-national-guard-coronavirus-update-troop-count-at-41600\/. Accessed 23 June 2020."},{"issue":"24","key":"299_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6924e2","volume":"69","author":"EK Stokes","year":"2020","unstructured":"Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai FS, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 case surveillance - United States, January 22\u2013may 30, 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020;69(24):759\u201365 http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/volumes\/69\/wr\/mm6924e2.htm?s_cid=mm6924e2_w. 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Influenza: a survey of the last 50 years in the light of modern work on the virus of epidemic influenza. Macmillan: Melbourne; 1942."},{"key":"299_CR29","unstructured":"Navy, Marines struggled with 1918 influenza pandemic. USNI Newss. https:\/\/news.usni.org\/2020\/03\/25\/navy-marines-struggled-with-1918-influenza-pandemic. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR30","unstructured":"Annual reports of the Navy Department for the fiscal year 1919. Washington; 1920."},{"key":"299_CR31","unstructured":"Snyder TL. The influence of the Spanish influenza upon U.S. fleet operations in European waters. U.S. Army Center of Military History. https:\/\/history.army.mil\/curriculum\/wwi\/docs\/AdditionalResources\/presentations\/The_Influence_of_Spanish_Influenza-paper.pdf. Accessed on 02 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR32","unstructured":"Marine Corps closes Parris Island boot camp to new recruits as COVID-19 cases spread. Military.com. https:\/\/www.military.com\/daily-news\/2020\/03\/30\/marine-corps-closes-parris-island-boot-camp-new-recruits-covid-19-cases-spread.html. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR33","unstructured":"Cellphones at Parris Island? Yes, it\u2019s the latest move by the Corps to cope with COVID-19. Marine Corps Times. https:\/\/www.marinecorpstimes.com\/news\/coronavirus\/2020\/04\/14\/cellphones-at-parris-island-yes-its-the-latest-move-by-the-corps-to-cope-with-covid-19\/. Accessed 23 June 2020."},{"key":"299_CR34","unstructured":"Army shutters recruiting stations as 6 recruits show COVID-19 symptoms at basic training. Military.com. https:\/\/www.military.com\/daily-news\/2020\/03\/20\/army-shutters-recruiting-stations-6-recruits-show-covid-19-symptoms-basic-training.html. Accessed 14 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR35","unstructured":"Army clears 1,200 recruits for basic training after setting up virus screening measures. Military.com. https:\/\/www.military.com\/daily-news\/2020\/03\/17\/army-clears-1200-recruits-basic-training-after-setting-virus-screening-measures.html. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR36","unstructured":"Air Force boot camp reports 4 total COVID cases in less than a week. Air Force Times. https:\/\/www.airforcetimes.com\/news\/coronavirus\/2020\/03\/30\/air-force-boot-camp-reports-4-total-covid-cases-in-less-than-a-week\/. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR37","unstructured":"The Navy is locking down staff at boot camp for up to 90 days. Navy Times. https:\/\/www.navytimes.com\/news\/coronavirus\/2020\/03\/25\/the-navy-is-locking-down-the-staff-at-navy-boot-camp\/. Accessed 01 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR38","unstructured":"Esper MT. Policy on accessions and accessions training during the COVID-19 outbreak. Health.mil. https:\/\/www.health.mil\/Reference-Center\/Publications\/2020\/04\/03\/Policy-on-Accessions. 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Accessed 14 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR42","unstructured":"Order of battle of the United States land forces in the World War, Volume 3, Part 1 - U.S. Army Center of Military History. https:\/\/history.army.mil\/html\/books\/023\/23-3\/index.html. Accessed 12 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR43","volume-title":"Before my helpless sight : suffering, dying and military medicine on the western front, 1914\u20131918","author":"L van Bergen","year":"2009","unstructured":"van Bergen L. Before my helpless sight : suffering, dying and military medicine on the western front, 1914\u20131918. Farnham: Ashgate; 2009."},{"key":"299_CR44","unstructured":"Military medical school to graduate students early, rush to COVID-19 response. Military.com. https:\/\/www.military.com\/daily-news\/2020\/03\/27\/military-medical-school-graduate-students-early-rush-covid-19-response.html. Accessed 14 April 2020."},{"key":"299_CR45","unstructured":"Changes to military health care system aimed at readiness|Health.mil. 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