{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T17:31:30Z","timestamp":1791653490138,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736899200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]],"date-time":"2025-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736899200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009827","name":"Alexandria University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009827","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Trop Dis Travel Med Vaccines"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is an enclosed, double-stranded DNA virus from the <jats:italic>Orthopoxvirus<\/jats:italic> genus, which also contains variola, vaccinia, and cowpox. MPXV, which was once confined to West and Central Africa, has recently had a rebound, spreading beyond its original range since 2017. The virus is distinguished by its unique morphology, which includes an oval or brick-shaped structure and a complex lipid and protein makeup. The current multi-country outbreak designated a public health emergency in 2022, has highlighted MPXV\u2019s shifting epidemiology and ability to spread rapidly over the globe. \u2018No one is safe until everyone is safe\u2019 is a slogan we often heard during the COVID-19 pandemic, which is now also required for the growing global and regional mpox outbreaks. The epidemic is divided into two clades: Clade I and Clade II, which have distinct pathogenic characteristics. Diagnostic approaches have developed with advances in molecular techniques, yet problems persist in resource-constrained situations. This overview summarizes the virus\u2019s history, epidemiology, morphology, and clinical characteristics, offering insights into its recent comeback and current global response efforts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40794-024-00237-w","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]],"date-time":"2025-01-14T23:01:35Z","timestamp":1736895695000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Monkeypox: a re-emergent virus with global health implications \u2013 a comprehensive review"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7380-9116","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nourhan G.","family":"Naga","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-3058-4600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enas A.","family":"Nawar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-8076-0426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"A\u2019laa A.","family":"Mobarak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7192-8920","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aya G.","family":"Faramawy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-3061-3201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hend M. H.","family":"Al-Kordy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"237_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan MB, Yang Z-S, Lin C-Y, Hsu M-C, Urbina AN, Assavalapsakul W et al. Dengue overview: an updated systemic review. J Infect Public Health. 2023.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2023.08.001"},{"key":"237_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2270","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.2270","volume":"7","author":"H Karami","year":"2024","unstructured":"Karami H, Letafati A, Fakhr SSH. Can Marburg virus be sexually transmitted? Health Sci Rep. 2024;7:e2270.","journal-title":"Health Sci Rep"},{"key":"237_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.24171\/j.phrp.2022.0155","volume":"13","author":"H Karami","year":"2022","unstructured":"Karami H, Karimi Z, Karami N. SARS-CoV-2 in brief: from virus to prevention. Osong Public Health Res Perspect. 2022;13:394.","journal-title":"Osong Public Health Res Perspect"},{"key":"237_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Letafati A, Ardekani OS, Karami H, Soleimani M. Ebola virus disease: a narrative review. Microb Pathog. 2023;:106213.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2023.106213"},{"key":"237_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Charostad J, Rukerd MRZ, Mahmoudvand S, Bashash D, Hashemi SMA, Nakhaie M et al. A comprehensive review of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1: an imminent threat at doorstep. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2023;:102638.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2023.102638"},{"key":"237_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1139\/cjm-2019-0331","volume":"66","author":"V Sharma","year":"2020","unstructured":"Sharma V, Sharma M, Dhull D, Sharma Y, Kaushik S, Kaushik S. Zika virus: an emerging challenge to public health worldwide. Can J Microbiol. 2020;66:87\u201398.","journal-title":"Can J Microbiol"},{"key":"237_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.3390\/v12111257","volume":"12","author":"E Alakunle","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus in Nigeria: infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution. Viruses. 2020;12:1257.","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"237_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9105","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00162-12","volume":"86","author":"PL Earl","year":"2012","unstructured":"Earl PL, Americo JL, Moss B. Lethal Monkeypox virus infection of CAST\/EiJ mice is associated with a deficient gamma interferon response. J Virol. 2012;86:9105\u201312.","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"237_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00776-z","volume":"20","author":"EF Alakunle","year":"2022","unstructured":"Alakunle EF, Okeke MI. Monkeypox virus: a neglected zoonotic pathogen spreads globally. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2022;20:507\u20138.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Microbiol"},{"key":"237_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2022.08.008","volume":"15","author":"JH Grothe","year":"2022","unstructured":"Grothe JH, Cornely OA, Salmanton-Garc\u00eda J. Monkeypox diagnostic and treatment capacity at epidemic onset: a VACCELERATE online survey. J Infect Public Health. 2022;15:1043\u20136.","journal-title":"J Infect Public Health"},{"key":"237_CR11","first-page":"267","volume":"7","author":"IR Malik","year":"2024","unstructured":"Malik IR, Shafique M, Raza M, Ahmad W, Shahbaz Y, Yousafzai A, et al. Monkey Virus recent breakthrough: review on efficacy of diagnosis and treatment methods. Pak-Euro J Med Life Sci. 2024;7:267\u201382.","journal-title":"Pak-Euro J Med Life Sci"},{"key":"237_CR12","first-page":"277","volume":"39","author":"I Arita","year":"1968","unstructured":"Arita I, Henderson DA. Smallpox and monkeypox in non-human primates. Bull World Health Organ. 1968;39:277.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"237_CR13","first-page":"593","volume":"46","author":"ID Ladnyj","year":"1972","unstructured":"Ladnyj ID, Ziegler P, Kima E. A human infection caused by monkeypox virus in Basankusu Territory, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Bull World Health Organ. 1972;46:593.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"237_CR14","first-page":"633","volume":"46","author":"B Lourie","year":"1972","unstructured":"Lourie B, Bingham PG, Evans HH, Foster SO, Nakano JH, Herrmann KL. Human infection with monkeypox virus: laboratory investigation of six cases in West Africa. Bull World Health Organ. 1972;46:633.","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"237_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1093\/inthealth\/iht029","volume":"5","author":"J Bass","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bass J, Tack DM, McCollum AM, Kabamba J, Pakuta E, Malekani J, et al. Enhancing health care worker ability to detect and care for patients with monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Int Health. 2013;5:237\u201343.","journal-title":"Int Health"},{"key":"237_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.3390\/v14061283","volume":"14","author":"OA Adegboye","year":"2022","unstructured":"Adegboye OA, Eugenia Castellanos M, Alele FO, Pak A, Ezechukwu HC, Hou K, et al. Travel-related monkeypox outbreaks in the era of COVID-19 pandemic: are we prepared? Viruses. 2022;14:1283.","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"237_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.12513","volume":"328","author":"JB Nuzzo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Nuzzo JB, Borio LL, Gostin LO. The WHO declaration of monkeypox as a global public health emergency. JAMA. 2022;328:615\u20137.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"237_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1360586","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1360586","volume":"14","author":"E Alakunle","year":"2024","unstructured":"Alakunle E, Kolawole D, Diaz-Canova D, Alele F, Adegboye O, Moens U, et al. A comprehensive review of monkeypox virus and mpox characteristics. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2024;14:1360586.","journal-title":"Front Cell Infect Microbiol"},{"key":"237_CR19","first-page":"10","volume":"6","author":"CL Hutson","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hutson CL, Kondas AV, Mauldin MR, Doty JB, Grossi IM, Morgan CN, et al. Pharmacokinetics and efficacy of a potential smallpox therapeutic, brincidofovir, in a lethal monkeypox virus animal model. MSphere. 2021;6:10\u20131128.","journal-title":"MSphere"},{"key":"237_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383729","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2018.00241","volume":"6","author":"N Sklenovsk\u00e1","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sklenovsk\u00e1 N, Van Ranst M. Emergence of monkeypox as the most important orthopoxvirus infection in humans. Front Public Health. 2018;6:383729.","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"237_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-13-1-9","volume":"13","author":"G Appleyard","year":"1971","unstructured":"Appleyard G, Hapel AJ, Boulter EA. An antigenic difference between intracellular and extracellular rabbitpox virus. J Gen Virol. 1971;13:9\u201317.","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"237_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1004904","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004904","volume":"11","author":"DJ Pickup","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pickup DJ. Extracellular virions: the advance guard of poxvirus infections. PLoS Pathog. 2015;11:e1004904.","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"237_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2006.08.025","volume":"358","author":"W Resch","year":"2007","unstructured":"Resch W, Hixson KK, Moore RJ, Lipton MS, Moss B. Protein composition of the Vaccinia virus mature virion. Virology. 2007;358:233\u201347.","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"237_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2002.1446","volume":"297","author":"SN Shchelkunov","year":"2002","unstructured":"Shchelkunov SN, Totmenin AV, Safronov PF, Mikheev MV, Gutorov VV, Ryazankina OI, et al. Analysis of the monkeypox virus genome. Virology. 2002;297:172\u201394.","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"237_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2661","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.81215-0","volume":"86","author":"AM Likos","year":"2005","unstructured":"Likos AM, Sammons SA, Olson VA, Frace AM, Li Y, Olsen-Rasmussen M, et al. A tale of two clades: monkeypox viruses. J Gen Virol. 2005;86:2661\u201372.","journal-title":"J Gen Virol"},{"key":"237_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(01)03144-1","volume":"509","author":"SN Shchelkunov","year":"2001","unstructured":"Shchelkunov SN, Totmenin AV, Babkin IV, Safronov PF, Ryazankina OI, Petrov NA, et al. Human monkeypox and smallpox viruses: genomic comparison. FEBS Lett. 2001;509:66\u201370.","journal-title":"FEBS Lett"},{"key":"237_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1007","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.1007","volume":"6","author":"J Ferdous","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ferdous J, Barek MA, Hossen MS, Bhowmik KK, Islam MS. A review on monkeypox virus outbreak: New challenge for world. Health Sci Rep. 2023;6:e1007.","journal-title":"Health Sci Rep"},{"key":"237_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/s12863-023-01171-0","volume":"24","author":"J Zhu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhu J, Yu J, Qin H, Chen X, Wu C, Hong X, et al. Exploring the key genomic variation in monkeypox virus during the 2022 outbreak. BMC Genomic Data. 2023;24:67.","journal-title":"BMC Genomic Data"},{"key":"237_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cevik M, Tomori O, Mbala P, Scagliarini A, Petersen E, Low N et al. The 2023\u20132024 multi-source mpox outbreaks of Clade I MPXV in sub-saharan Africa: alarm bell for Africa and the World. IJID One Health. 2024;4.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijidoh.2024.100033"},{"key":"237_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3003.230861","volume":"30","author":"DD Djuicy","year":"2024","unstructured":"Djuicy DD, Sadeuh-Mba SA, Bilounga CN, Yonga MG, Tchatchueng-Mbougua JB, Essima GD, et al. Concurrent clade I and Clade II Monkeypox Virus circulation, Cameroon, 1979\u20132022. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024;30:432.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1007\/s11010-022-04657-0","volume":"478","author":"M Thakur","year":"2023","unstructured":"Thakur M, Das P, Sobti RC, Kaur T. Human monkeypox: epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, immunology, diagnosis and therapeutics. Mol Cell Biochem. 2023;478:2097\u2013110.","journal-title":"Mol Cell Biochem"},{"key":"237_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E1031","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.220886","volume":"194","author":"SS Sukhdeo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sukhdeo SS, Aldhaheri K, Lam PW, Walmsley S. A case of human monkeypox in Canada. CMAJ. 2022;194:E1031\u20135.","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"237_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nisar H, Saleem O, Sapna FNU, Sham S, Perkash RS, Kiran N et al. A narrative review on the Monkeypox Virus: an Ongoing Global Outbreak Hitting the non-endemic countries. Cureus. 2023;15.","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.43322"},{"key":"237_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2091","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10122091","volume":"10","author":"AA Saied","year":"2022","unstructured":"Saied AA, Dhawan M, Metwally AA, Fahrni ML, Choudhary P, Choudhary OP. Disease history, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and therapeutics for human monkeypox disease: a comprehensive review. Vaccines. 2022;10:2091.","journal-title":"Vaccines"},{"key":"237_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3025","DOI":"10.22207\/JPAM.16.SPL1.05","volume":"16","author":"U Tayyaba","year":"2022","unstructured":"Tayyaba U, Sultan A, Khan F, Ahmed S, Ahmad I. Monkeypox: a review in Indian context. J Pure Appl Microbiol. 2022;16:3025\u201335.","journal-title":"J Pure Appl Microbiol"},{"key":"237_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0407","DOI":"10.1097\/GH9.0000000000000407","volume":"7","author":"P Satapathy","year":"2024","unstructured":"Satapathy P, Rustagi S, Neyazi A, Neyazi M, Gaidhane AM, Khatib MN, et al. First human death due to monkeypox virus in Pakistan: a public health concern for resource-limited non-endemic countries. IJS Global Health. 2024;7:e0407.","journal-title":"IJS Global Health"},{"key":"237_CR37","unstructured":"World Health Organization. First meeting of the International Health Regulations (2005) Emergency Committee regarding the upsurge of mpox 2024. 2024."},{"key":"237_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaler J, Hussain A, Flores G, Kheiri S, Desrosiers D. Monkeypox: a comprehensive review of transmission, pathogenesis, and manifestation. Cureus. 2022;14.","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.26531"},{"key":"237_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1132250","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1132250","volume":"14","author":"L Niu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Niu L, Liang D, Ling Q, Zhang J, Li Z, Zhang D, et al. Insights into monkeypox pathophysiology, global prevalence, clinical manifestation and treatments. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1132250.","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"237_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.3390\/life13061250","volume":"13","author":"F Spirito","year":"2023","unstructured":"Spirito F, Guida A, Caponio VCA, Lo Muzio L. Monkeypox: a New Challenge for Global Health System? Life. 2023;13:1250.","journal-title":"Life"},{"key":"237_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1007\/s13577-023-00870-1","volume":"36","author":"JPS Begum","year":"2023","unstructured":"Begum JPS, Ngangom L, Semwal P, Painuli S, Sharma R, Gupta A. Emergence of monkeypox: a worldwide public health crisis. Hum Cell. 2023;36:877\u201393.","journal-title":"Hum Cell"},{"key":"237_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1157670","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1157670","volume":"10","author":"M Zahmatyar","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zahmatyar M, Fazlollahi A, Motamedi A, Zolfi M, Seyedi F, Nejadghaderi SA, et al. Human monkeypox: history, presentations, transmission, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Front Med. 2023;10:1157670.","journal-title":"Front Med"},{"key":"237_CR43","first-page":"1","volume":"49","author":"FA Noghabi","year":"2024","unstructured":"Noghabi FA, Rizk JG, Makkar D, Roozbeh N, Ghelichpour S, Zarei A. Managing Monkeypox Virus infections: a contemporary review. Iran J Med Sci. 2024;49:1.","journal-title":"Iran J Med Sci"},{"key":"237_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11080924","volume":"11","author":"R Sah","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sah R, Abdelaal A, Reda A, Katamesh BE, Manirambona E, Abdelmonem H, et al. Monkeypox and its possible sexual transmission: where are we now with its evidence? Pathogens. 2022;11:924.","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"237_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2022.102459","volume":"50","author":"M Altindis","year":"2022","unstructured":"Altindis M, Puca E, Shapo L. Diagnosis of monkeypox virus\u2013An overview. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2022;50:102459.","journal-title":"Travel Med Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2200421","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.22.2200421","volume":"27","author":"A Antinori","year":"2022","unstructured":"Antinori A, Mazzotta V, Vita S, Carletti F, Tacconi D, Lapini LE, et al. Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of four cases of monkeypox support transmission through sexual contact, Italy, May 2022. Eurosurveillance. 2022;27:2200421.","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"237_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00775-4","volume":"22","author":"F-M Lum","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lum F-M, Torres-Ruesta A, Tay MZ, Lin RTP, Lye DC, R\u00e9nia L, et al. Monkeypox: disease epidemiology, host immunity and clinical interventions. Nat Rev Immunol. 2022;22:597\u2013613.","journal-title":"Nat Rev Immunol"},{"key":"237_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahase E, Monkeypox. What do we know about the outbreaks in Europe and North America? 2022.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.o1274"},{"key":"237_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2022.102855","volume":"131","author":"N Kumar","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kumar N, Acharya A, Gendelman HE, Byrareddy SN. The 2022 outbreak and the pathobiology of the monkeypox virus. J Autoimmun. 2022;131:102855.","journal-title":"J Autoimmun"},{"key":"237_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0010141","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010141","volume":"16","author":"EM Bunge","year":"2022","unstructured":"Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, Lienert F, Weidenthaler H, Baer LR, et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox\u2014A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022;16:e0010141.","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"237_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.3390\/v15071533","volume":"15","author":"N Ghosh","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ghosh N, Chacko L, Vallamkondu J, Banerjee T, Sarkar C, Singh B, et al. Clinical strategies and therapeutics for human monkeypox virus: a revised perspective on recent outbreaks. Viruses. 2023;15:1533.","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"237_CR52","unstructured":"World Health Organization. No Title. 2024."},{"key":"237_CR53","first-page":"191","volume":"42","author":"E Prompetchara","year":"2024","unstructured":"Prompetchara E, Ketloy C, Khawsang C, Palaga T, Ruxrungtham K. Mpox global health emergency: insights into the virus, immune responses, and advancements in vaccines; PART II: insights into the advancements in vaccines. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2024;42:191\u2013206.","journal-title":"Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol"},{"key":"237_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kindrachuk J, Arsenault R, Kusalik A, Kindrachuk KN, Trost B, Napper S et al. Systems kinomics demonstrates Congo Basin Monkeypox virus infection selectively modulates host cell signaling responses as compared to west African monkeypox virus. Mol Cell Proteom. 2012;11.","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M111.015701"},{"key":"237_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2022.104069","volume":"79","author":"M Hraib","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hraib M, Jouni S, Albitar MM, Alaidi S, Alshehabi Z. The outbreak of monkeypox 2022: an overview. Annals Med Surg. 2022;79:104069.","journal-title":"Annals Med Surg"},{"key":"237_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2837","DOI":"10.1097\/JS9.0000000000000091","volume":"109","author":"SK Ahmed","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ahmed SK, El-Kader RGA, Abdulqadir SO, Abdullah AJ, Nahed A, Chandran D, et al. Monkeypox clinical symptoms, pathology, and advances in management and treatment options: an update. Int J Surg. 2023;109:2837\u201340.","journal-title":"Int J Surg"},{"key":"237_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2023.106027","volume":"176","author":"A Letafati","year":"2023","unstructured":"Letafati A, Sakhavarz T. Monkeypox virus: a review. Microb Pathog. 2023;176:106027.","journal-title":"Microb Pathog"},{"key":"237_CR58","first-page":"1027","volume":"33","author":"E Petersen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, et al. Human monkeypox: epidemiologic and clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and prevention. Infect Disease Clin. 2019;33:1027\u201343.","journal-title":"Infect Disease Clin"},{"key":"237_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac622","volume":"76","author":"EA Siegrist","year":"2023","unstructured":"Siegrist EA, Sassine J. Antivirals with activity against mpox: a clinically oriented review. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:155\u201364.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s40257-023-00778-4","volume":"24","author":"AK Gupta","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gupta AK, Talukder M, Rosen T, Piguet V. Differential diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mpox (monkeypox): a review for dermatologists. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2023;24:541\u201356.","journal-title":"Am J Clin Dermatol"},{"key":"237_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Higgins E, Ranganath N, Mehkri O, Majeed A, Walker J, Spivack S et al. Clinical features, treatment and outcomes of mpox in solid organ transplant recipients: a multicenter case series and literature review. Am J Transplant. 2023.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajt.2023.07.016"},{"key":"237_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shah J, Saak TM, Desai AN, Gudis DA, Cheema HA, Abuelazm M et al. Otolaryngologic manifestations among MPOX patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Otolaryngol. 2023;:103991.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjoto.2023.103991"},{"key":"237_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12010146","volume":"12","author":"Q Liu","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liu Q, Fu L, Wang B, Sun Y, Wu X, Peng X, et al. Clinical characteristics of human Mpox (monkeypox) in 2022: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pathogens. 2023;12:146.","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"237_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patel VM, Patel SV. Epidemiological review on monkeypox. Cureus. 2023;15.","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.34653"},{"key":"237_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)00273-8","volume":"401","author":"O Mitj\u00e0","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mitj\u00e0 O, Alemany A, Marks M, Mora JIL, Rodr\u00edguez-Aldama JC, Silva MST, et al. Mpox in people with advanced HIV infection: a global case series. Lancet. 2023;401:939\u201349.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"237_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1080\/14787210.2023.2208346","volume":"21","author":"N Selvaraj","year":"2023","unstructured":"Selvaraj N, Shyam S, Dhurairaj P, Thiruselvan K, Thiruselvan A, Kancherla Y, et al. Mpox: epidemiology, clinical manifestations and recent developments in treatment and prevention. Expert Rev Anti-infective Therapy. 2023;21:641\u201353.","journal-title":"Expert Rev Anti-infective Therapy"},{"key":"237_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2022.102383","volume":"49","author":"PG Zambrano","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zambrano PG, Acosta-Espa\u00f1a JD, Moyano FM, Jara JBA. Sexually or intimately transmitted infections: a look at the current outbreak of monkeypox in 2022. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2022;49:102383.","journal-title":"Travel Med Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.21834","volume":"187","author":"J Griffiths-Acha","year":"2022","unstructured":"Griffiths-Acha J, Vela\u2010Ganuza M, Sarr\u00f3\u2010Fuente C, L\u00f3pez\u2010Estebaranz JL. Monkeypox: a new differential diagnosis when addressing genital ulcer disease. Br J Dermatol. 2022;187:1050\u20132.","journal-title":"Br J Dermatol"},{"key":"237_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.3390\/idr14050077","volume":"14","author":"D de Sousa","year":"2022","unstructured":"de Sousa D, Patroc\u00ednio J, Frade J, Braz\u00e3o C, Mancha D, Correia C, et al. Monkeypox diagnosis by cutaneous and mucosal findings. Infect Disease Rep. 2022;14:759\u201364.","journal-title":"Infect Disease Rep"},{"key":"237_CR70","first-page":"125","volume":"93","author":"KN Durski","year":"2018","unstructured":"Durski KN, Mccollum AM, Nakazawa Y, Petersen BW, Reynolds MG, Briand S, et al. Emergence of monkeypox in West Africa and Central Africa, 1970\u20132017. Relev Epidemiol Hebd. 2018;93:125\u201332.","journal-title":"Relev Epidemiol Hebd"},{"key":"237_CR71","first-page":"789","volume":"31","author":"AW Downie","year":"1950","unstructured":"Downie AW, McCarthy K. The viruses of Variola, Vaccinia, cowpox and ectromelia.\u2014neutralization tests on the chorio-allantois with unabsorbed and absorbed immune sera. Br J Exp Pathol. 1950;31:789.","journal-title":"Br J Exp Pathol"},{"key":"237_CR72","unstructured":"McConnell S, Hickman RL, Wooding WL Jr, Huxsoll DL. Monkeypox: experimental infection in chimpanzee (Pan satyrus) and immunization with vaccinia virus. 1968."},{"key":"237_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/17.3.643","volume":"17","author":"PEM Fine","year":"1988","unstructured":"Fine PEM, Jezek Z, Grab B, Dixon H. The transmission potential of monkeypox virus in human populations. Int J Epidemiol. 1988;17:643\u201350.","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"237_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00008-6","volume":"55","author":"E De Clercq","year":"2002","unstructured":"De Clercq E. Cidofovir in the treatment of poxvirus infections. Antiviral Res. 2002;55:1\u201313.","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"237_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-022-00611-6","volume":"44","author":"J Quarleri","year":"2022","unstructured":"Quarleri J, Delpino MV, Galvan V. Monkeypox: considerations for the understanding and containment of the current outbreak in non-endemic countries. Geroscience. 2022;44:2095\u2013103.","journal-title":"Geroscience"},{"key":"237_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13139","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.20.13139-13149.2005","volume":"79","author":"G Yang","year":"2005","unstructured":"Yang G, Pevear DC, Davies MH, Collett MS, Bailey T, Rippen S, et al. An orally bioavailable antipoxvirus compound (ST-246) inhibits extracellular virus formation and protects mice from lethal orthopoxvirus challenge. J Virol. 2005;79:13139\u201349.","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"237_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2409","DOI":"10.3390\/v2112409","volume":"2","author":"R Jordan","year":"2010","unstructured":"Jordan R, Leeds JM, Tyavanagimatt S, Hruby DE. Development of ST-246\u00ae for treatment of poxvirus infections. Viruses. 2010;2:2409.","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"237_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.2217\/fvl.11.27","volume":"6","author":"DW Grosenbach","year":"2011","unstructured":"Grosenbach DW, Jordan R, Hruby DE. Development of the small-molecule antiviral ST-246\u00ae as a smallpox therapeutic. Future Virol. 2011;6:653\u201371.","journal-title":"Future Virol"},{"key":"237_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-3542(02)00196-1","volume":"57","author":"RO Baker","year":"2003","unstructured":"Baker RO, Bray M, Huggins JW. Potential antiviral therapeutics for smallpox, monkeypox and other orthopoxvirus infections. Antiviral Res. 2003;57:13\u201323.","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"237_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01172-07","volume":"52","author":"WC Magee","year":"2008","unstructured":"Magee WC, Aldern KA, Hostetler KY, Evans DH. Cidofovir and (S)-9-[3-hydroxy-(2-phosphonomethoxy) propyl] adenine are highly effective inhibitors of Vaccinia virus DNA polymerase when incorporated into the template strand. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:586\u201397.","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother"},{"key":"237_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e6","DOI":"10.1086\/595552","volume":"48","author":"A MacNeil","year":"2009","unstructured":"MacNeil A, Reynolds MG, Braden Z, Carroll DS, Bostik V, Karem K, et al. Transmission of atypical varicella-zoster virus infections involving palm and sole manifestations in an area with monkeypox endemicity. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:e6\u20138.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.2014.948847","volume":"12","author":"DF Florescu","year":"2014","unstructured":"Florescu DF, Keck MA. Development of CMX001 (Brincidofovir) for the treatment of serious diseases or conditions caused by dsDNA viruses. Expert Rev anti-infective Therapy. 2014;12:1171\u20138.","journal-title":"Expert Rev anti-infective Therapy"},{"key":"237_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nalca A, Zumbrun EE. ACAM2000\u2122: the new smallpox vaccine for United States Strategic National Stockpile. Drug design, development and therapy. 2010;:71\u20139.","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S3687"},{"key":"237_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1086\/587668","volume":"46","author":"S Vora","year":"2008","unstructured":"Vora S, Damon I, Fulginiti V, Weber SG, Kahana M, Stein SL, et al. Severe eczema vaccinatum in a household contact of a smallpox vaccinee. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:1555\u201361.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2018.11.004","volume":"162","author":"BW Petersen","year":"2019","unstructured":"Petersen BW, Kabamba J, McCollum AM, Lushima RS, Wemakoy EO, Tamfum J-JM, et al. Vaccinating against monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Antiviral Res. 2019;162:171\u20137.","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"237_CR86","first-page":"1","volume":"64 RR\u201302","author":"BW Petersen","year":"2015","unstructured":"Petersen BW, Damon IK, Pertowski CA, Meaney-Delman D, Guarnizo JT, Beigi RH, et al. Clinical guidance for smallpox vaccine use in a postevent vaccination program. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64 RR\u201302:1\u201326.","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm Rep"},{"key":"237_CR87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5179","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02642-05","volume":"80","author":"M Saijo","year":"2006","unstructured":"Saijo M, Ami Y, Suzaki Y, Nagata N, Iwata N, Hasegawa H, et al. LC16m8, a highly attenuated Vaccinia virus vaccine lacking expression of the membrane protein B5R, protects monkeys from monkeypox. J Virol. 2006;80:5179\u201388.","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"237_CR88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.7883\/yoken.JJID.2016.417","volume":"70","author":"I Iizuka","year":"2017","unstructured":"Iizuka I, Ami Y, Suzaki Y, Nagata N, Fukushi S, Ogata M, et al. A single vaccination of nonhuman primates with highly attenuated smallpox vaccine, LC16m8, provides long-term protection against monkeypox. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2017;70:408\u201315.","journal-title":"Jpn J Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2019.10.049","volume":"38","author":"AT Russo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Russo AT, Berhanu A, Bigger CB, Prigge J, Silvera PM, Grosenbach DW, et al. Co-administration of tecovirimat and ACAM2000\u2122 in non-human primates: Effect of tecovirimat treatment on ACAM2000 immunogenicity and efficacy versus lethal monkeypox virus challenge. Vaccine. 2020;38:644\u201354.","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"237_CR90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7310","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00355-12","volume":"86","author":"S Duraffour","year":"2012","unstructured":"Duraffour S, Andrei G, Topalis D, Kre\u010dmerov\u00e1 M, Crance J-M, Garin D, et al. Mutations conferring resistance to viral DNA polymerase inhibitors in camelpox virus give different drug-susceptibility profiles in Vaccinia virus. J Virol. 2012;86:7310\u201325.","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"237_CR91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1001\/archdermatol.2011.20","volume":"147","author":"C Erickson","year":"2011","unstructured":"Erickson C, Driscoll M, Gaspari A. Efficacy of intravenous cidofovir in the treatment of giant molluscum contagiosum in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Dermatol. 2011;147:652\u20134.","journal-title":"Arch Dermatol"},{"key":"237_CR92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2006.10.009","volume":"73","author":"KY Hostetler","year":"2007","unstructured":"Hostetler KY, Beadle JR, Trahan J, Aldern KA, Owens G, Schriewer J, et al. Oral 1-O-octadecyl-2-o-benzyl-sn-glycero-3-cidofovir targets the lung and is effective against a lethal respiratory challenge with Ectromelia virus in mice. Antiviral Res. 2007;73:212\u20138.","journal-title":"Antiviral Res"},{"key":"237_CR93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1097\/FTD.0000000000000353","volume":"38","author":"TK Tippin","year":"2016","unstructured":"Tippin TK, Morrison ME, Brundage TM, Momm\u00e9ja-Marin H. Brincidofovir is not a substrate for the human organic anion transporter 1: a mechanistic explanation for the lack of nephrotoxicity observed in clinical studies. Ther Drug Monit. 2016;38:777\u201386.","journal-title":"Ther Drug Monit"},{"key":"237_CR94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jir853","volume":"205","author":"JI Cohen","year":"2012","unstructured":"Cohen JI, Davila W, Ali MA, Turk S-P, Cowen EW, Freeman AF, et al. Detection of molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) DNA in the plasma of an immunocompromised patient and possible reduction of MCV DNA with CMX-001. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:794\u20137.","journal-title":"J Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00228-6","volume":"22","author":"H Adler","year":"2022","unstructured":"Adler H, Gould S, Hine P, Snell LB, Wong W, Houlihan CF, et al. Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22:1153\u201362.","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01044-08","volume":"53","author":"SK Smith","year":"2009","unstructured":"Smith SK, Olson VA, Karem KL, Jordan R, Hruby DE, Damon IK. In vitro efficacy of ST246 against smallpox and monkeypox. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:1007\u201312.","journal-title":"Antimicrob Agents Chemother"},{"key":"237_CR97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsu.2022.106703","volume":"104","author":"V Thakur","year":"2022","unstructured":"Thakur V, Thakur P, Srivastava S, Kumar P. Monkeypox virus (MPX) in humans a concern: Trespassing the global boundaries\u2013correspondence. Int J Surg. 2022;104:106703.","journal-title":"Int J Surg"},{"key":"237_CR98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-018-0967-6","volume":"78","author":"SM Hoy","year":"2018","unstructured":"Hoy SM. Tecovirimat: first global approval. Drugs. 2018;78:1377\u201382.","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"237_CR99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-017-3807-x","volume":"163","author":"EI Filippova","year":"2017","unstructured":"Filippova EI. Antiviral activity of Lady\u2019s mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris L.) extracts against orthopoxviruses. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2017;163:374\u20137.","journal-title":"Bull Exp Biol Med"},{"key":"237_CR100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e32610","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0032610","volume":"7","author":"W Arndt","year":"2012","unstructured":"Arndt W, Mitnik C, Denzler KL, White S, Waters R, Jacobs BL, et al. In vitro characterization of a nineteenth-century therapy for smallpox. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e32610.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"237_CR101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit703","volume":"58","author":"AM McCollum","year":"2014","unstructured":"McCollum AM, Damon IK. Human monkeypox. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:260\u20137.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"237_CR102","unstructured":"World Bank. The Economic Impact of Infectious Disease Outbreaks. 2022."},{"key":"237_CR103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e554","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(22)00153-7","volume":"3","author":"A Otu","year":"2022","unstructured":"Otu A, Ebenso B, Walley J, Barcel\u00f3 JM, Ochu CL. Global human monkeypox outbreak: atypical presentation demanding urgent public health action. Lancet Microbe. 2022;3:e554\u20135.","journal-title":"Lancet Microbe"}],"container-title":["Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40794-024-00237-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40794-024-00237-w\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40794-024-00237-w.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]],"date-time":"2025-01-14T23:01:48Z","timestamp":1736895708000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/tdtmvjournal.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s40794-024-00237-w"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["237"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40794-024-00237-w","relation":{},"ISSN":["2055-0936"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2055-0936","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"6 September 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"18 November 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"15 January 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"2"}}