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Anthropometric and body composition measures, including BMI, body fat percentage, fat-free mass, muscle mass, and waist-to-hip ratio, were assessed. Dietary data were collected using three 24-hour recalls, categorizing macronutrient quality (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins). ANCOVA was used to compare anthropometric and body composition measures across macronutrient tertiles for dinner versus breakfast. Non-linear associations were analyzed using restricted cubic splines.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>According to our findings, higher-quality carbohydrate intake at dinner versus breakfast showed a significant inverted U-shaped association with BMI. Conversely, saturated fat intake at dinner versus breakfast increased BMI in a U-shaped relationship, while linearly reducing muscle mass and fat-free mass. Unsaturated fat intake at dinner compared to breakfast showed a U-shaped association with BMI. Moreover, animal protein intake at dinner versus breakfast slightly increased muscle mass and fat-free mass in a reverse U-shaped pattern. However, higher plant protein intake at dinner versus breakfast reduced BMI linearly and decreased fat-free mass and muscle mass.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Higher intake of high-quality carbohydrates, unsaturated fats, and plant-based proteins at dinner versus breakfast may improve body composition, while increased consumption of saturated fats and animal proteins at dinner versus breakfast may worsen central adiposity and BMI.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40795-026-01382-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T08:35:59Z","timestamp":1781253359000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Association of macronutrient quality at dinner versus breakfast with body composition in adults living in Tehran: results from a cross-sectional study"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Shadi","family":"Ghaemi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Reyhane","family":"Norouziasl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Negar","family":"Bafkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bahareh Jabbarzadeh","family":"Ganjeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kourosh","family":"Djafarian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alireza","family":"Bahrami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sakineh","family":"Shab-Bidar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"1382_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metop.2025.100375","volume":"27","author":"SK Ahmed","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ahmed SK, Mohammed RA. 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