{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T02:44:01Z","timestamp":1787021041981,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]],"date-time":"2025-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741651200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]],"date-time":"2025-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741651200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"name":"BrainEye","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sports Med - Open"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Concussion is a common consequence of engaging in collision sports, with the often mild, transient nature of symptoms posing a considerable diagnostic and management challenge. This challenge is vastly magnified for athletes competing at grassroots\/non-professional levels, who lack field side access to medical expertise in the assessment of a player\u2019s capacity to continue playing or need for further medical attention. The aim of this pilot study was to evaluate the utility of the BrainEye application and hardware (BrainEye platform) as a concussion screening tool, specifically determining (1) its sensitivity and specificity with respect to identifying an individual with a clinically diagnosed concussion, (2) the stability of the platform through test completion\/failure rates, and (3) its usability through operator feedback and uptake\/integration into concussion management protocols.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Using the BrainEye platform, 348 male professional Australian Rules footballers from 10 Australian Football League (AFL) clubs completed 4 simple ocular protocols (pupillary light reflex, PLR; smooth pursuit eye movements, SMP; near-point convergence, NPC; horizontal gaze nystagmus, HGN) at baseline, prior to the onset of the 2022 AFL season, and following the clinical diagnosis of concussion throughout the season during a game\/training\/practice (\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200911 players immediately following a concussive event, and on 14 occasions 2\u20137 days following a concussive event). Although club participation and protocol adherence rates were suboptimal, with clubs citing COVID-19 restrictions and cumbersome hardware set-up as primary reasons for non-participation\/missing data, a BrainEye score that derived from an algorithm combining smooth pursuit and pupillary light reflex measures, achieved 100% sensitivity relative to clinical judgement, in identifying all instances of clinically diagnosed concussion, and 85% specificity.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Collectively, the results of this study suggest that by removing the requirement for add-on hardware and providing a smartphone-only option with direct feedback on performance to the user, the BrainEye application may provide a useful screening tool for sport-related concussion.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-025-00819-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]],"date-time":"2025-03-11T09:21:21Z","timestamp":1741684881000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Investigating the Utility of the BrainEye Smartphone Eye Tracking Application and Platform in Concussion Management"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5962-3681","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meaghan","family":"Clough","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jade","family":"Bartholomew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2836-7344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Owen","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1131-0587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanne","family":"Fielding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"819_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musumeci G, Ravalli S, Amorini AM, Lazzarino G. Concussion in sports. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2019;4(2).","DOI":"10.3390\/jfmk4020037"},{"key":"819_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patricios JS, Schneider KJ, Dvorak J, Ahmed OH, Blauwet C, Cantu RC et al. Consensus statement on concussion in sport: the 6th International Conference on Concussion in Sport-Amsterdam, October 2022. Br J Sports Med. 2023;57(11):695\u2013711.","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2023-106898"},{"issue":"5","key":"819_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1987.66.5.0706","volume":"66","author":"HS Levin","year":"1987","unstructured":"Levin HS, Amparo E, Eisenberg HM, Williams DH, High WM Jr., McArdle CB, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and computerized tomography in relation to the neurobehavioral sequelae of mild and moderate head injuries. J Neurosurg. 1987;66(5):706\u201313.","journal-title":"J Neurosurg"},{"issue":"8","key":"819_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaau3460","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aau3460","volume":"5","author":"AA Hirad","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hirad AA, Bazarian JJ, Merchant-Borna K, Garcea FE, Heilbronner S, Paul D, et al. A common neural signature of brain injury in concussion and subconcussion. Sci Adv. 2019;5(8):eaau3460.","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"key":"819_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-63954-7.00015-X","volume":"158","author":"J Debacker","year":"2018","unstructured":"Debacker J, Ventura R, Galetta SL, Balcer LJ, Rucker JC. Neuro-ophthalmologic disorders following concussion. Handb Clin Neurol. 2018;158:145\u201352.","journal-title":"Handb Clin Neurol"},{"key":"819_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chidambaram S, Maheswaran Y, Patel K, Sounderajah V, Hashimoto DA, Seastedt KP et al. Using Artificial Intelligence-enhanced sensing and Wearable Technology in sports Medicine and Performance Optimisation. Sens [Internet]. 2022; 22(18).","DOI":"10.3390\/s22186920"},{"key":"819_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2015.12.010","volume":"361","author":"RE Ventura","year":"2016","unstructured":"Ventura RE, Balcer LJ, Galetta SL, Rucker JC. Ocular motor assessment in concussion: current status and future directions. J Neurol Sci. 2016;361:79\u201386.","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"819_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1177\/0009922815594367","volume":"55","author":"CL Master","year":"2016","unstructured":"Master CL, Scheiman M, Gallaway M, Goodman A, Robinson RL, Master SR, et al. Vision diagnoses are common after concussion in adolescents. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2016;55(3):260\u20137.","journal-title":"Clin Pediatr (Phila)"},{"issue":"2","key":"819_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2019.6595","volume":"37","author":"NG Murray","year":"2020","unstructured":"Murray NG, Szekely B, Islas A, Munkasy B, Gore R, Berryhill M, et al. Smooth pursuit and Saccades after Sport-Related Concussion. J Neurotrauma. 2020;37(2):340\u20136.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"1","key":"819_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-015-0693-x","volume":"49","author":"CA DiCesare","year":"2017","unstructured":"DiCesare CA, Kiefer AW, Nalepka P, Myer GD. Quantification and analysis of saccadic and smooth pursuit eye movements and fixations to detect oculomotor deficits. Behav Res Methods. 2017;49(1):258\u201366.","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"issue":"4","key":"819_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e3181e67936","volume":"25","author":"J Maruta","year":"2010","unstructured":"Maruta J, Suh M, Niogi SN, Mukherjee P, Ghajar J. Visual tracking synchronization as a Metric for Concussion Screening. J Head Trauma Rehab. 2010;25(4):293\u2013305.","journal-title":"J Head Trauma Rehab"},{"key":"819_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"919596","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.919596","volume":"13","author":"KM Kelly","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kelly KM, Anghinah R, Kullmann A, Ashmore RC, Synowiec AS, Gibson LC, et al. Oculomotor, vestibular, reaction time, and cognitive tests as objective measures of neural deficits in patients post COVID-19 infection. Front Neurol. 2022;13:919596.","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"issue":"14","key":"819_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2021.2012825","volume":"35","author":"M Hunfalvay","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hunfalvay M, Murray NP, Mani R, Carrick FR. Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements as a biomarker for mild concussion within 7-Days of Injury. Brain Inj. 2021;35(14):1682\u20139.","journal-title":"Brain Inj"},{"key":"819_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suh M, Kolster R, Sarkar R, McCandliss B, Ghajar J, Cognitive, et al. Deficits in predictive smooth pursuit after mild traumatic brain injury. Neurosci Lett. 2006;401(1\u20132):108\u201313.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2006.02.074"},{"issue":"1","key":"819_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-36286-3","volume":"9","author":"JL Stubbs","year":"2019","unstructured":"Stubbs JL, Corrow SL, Kiang BR, Corrow JC, Pearce HL, Cheng AY, et al. Working memory load improves diagnostic performance of smooth pursuit eye movement in mild traumatic brain injury patients with protracted recovery. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):291.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"4","key":"819_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e3181e67936","volume":"25","author":"J Maruta","year":"2010","unstructured":"Maruta J, Suh M, Niogi SN, Mukherjee P, Ghajar J. Visual tracking synchronization as a metric for concussion screening. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2010;25(4):293\u2013305.","journal-title":"J Head Trauma Rehabil"},{"issue":"1","key":"819_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4583","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-22825-5","volume":"8","author":"A Danna-Dos-Santos","year":"2018","unstructured":"Danna-Dos-Santos A, Mohapatra S, Santos M, Degani AM. Long-term effects of mild traumatic brain injuries to oculomotor tracking performances and reaction times to simple environmental stimuli. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):4583.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1\u20132","key":"819_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2006.02.074","volume":"401","author":"M Suh","year":"2006","unstructured":"Suh M, Kolster R, Sarkar R, McCandliss B, Ghajar J. Deficits in predictive smooth pursuit after mild traumatic brain injury. Neurosci Lett. 2006;401(1\u20132):108\u201313.","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"issue":"4","key":"819_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1002\/lio2.74","volume":"2","author":"ME Hoffer","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hoffer ME, Balaban C, Szczupak M, Buskirk J, Snapp H, Crawford J, et al. The use of oculomotor, vestibular, and reaction time tests to assess mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) over time. Laryngoscope Investig Otolaryngol. 2017;2(4):157\u201365.","journal-title":"Laryngoscope Investig Otolaryngol"},{"issue":"8","key":"819_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2014.3687","volume":"32","author":"U Samadani","year":"2015","unstructured":"Samadani U, Ritlop R, Reyes M, Nehrbass E, Li M, Lamm E, et al. Eye tracking detects disconjugate eye movements associated with structural traumatic brain injury and concussion. J Neurotrauma. 2015;32(8):548\u201356.","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"issue":"12","key":"819_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.3109\/02699052.2015.1045029","volume":"29","author":"P Thiagarajan","year":"2015","unstructured":"Thiagarajan P, Ciuffreda KJ. Pupillary responses to light in chronic non-blast-induced mTBI. Brain Inj. 2015;29(12):1420\u20135.","journal-title":"Brain Inj"},{"issue":"11","key":"819_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2020.3466","volume":"138","author":"CL Master","year":"2020","unstructured":"Master CL, Podolak OE, Ciuffreda KJ, Metzger KB, Joshi NR, McDonald CC, et al. Utility of Pupillary Light Reflex Metrics as a physiologic biomarker for adolescent Sport-Related Concussion. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2020;138(11):1135\u201341.","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"11","key":"819_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2016.1195922","volume":"30","author":"JQ Truong","year":"2016","unstructured":"Truong JQ, Ciuffreda KJ. Comparison of pupillary dynamics to light in the mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and normal populations. Brain Inj. 2016;30(11):1378\u201389.","journal-title":"Brain Inj"},{"issue":"suppl1","key":"819_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usx166","volume":"183","author":"JE Cap\u00f3-Aponte","year":"2018","unstructured":"Cap\u00f3-Aponte JE, Beltran TA, Walsh DV, Cole WR, Dumayas JY. Validation of visual objective biomarkers for Acute Concussion. Mil Med. 2018;183(suppl1):9\u201317.","journal-title":"Mil Med"},{"issue":"19","key":"819_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2016.1241420","volume":"35","author":"AJ Pearce","year":"2017","unstructured":"Pearce AJ, Young JA, Parrington L, Aimers N. Do as I say: contradicting beliefs and attitudes towards sports concussion in Australia. J Sports Sci. 2017;35(19):1911\u20139.","journal-title":"J Sports Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"819_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1212\/CPJ.0b013e3182a1ba22","volume":"3","author":"DM Torres","year":"2013","unstructured":"Torres DM, Galetta KM, Phillips HW, Dziemianowicz EM, Wilson JA, Dorman ES, et al. Sports-related concussion: Anonymous survey of a collegiate cohort. Neurol Clin Pract. 2013;3(4):279\u201387.","journal-title":"Neurol Clin Pract"},{"issue":"5","key":"819_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2014.07.008","volume":"18","author":"TB Meier","year":"2015","unstructured":"Meier TB, Brummel BJ, Singh R, Nerio CJ, Polanski DW, Bellgowan PS. The underreporting of self-reported symptoms following sports-related concussion. J Sci Med Sport. 2015;18(5):507\u201311.","journal-title":"J Sci Med Sport"}],"container-title":["Sports Medicine - Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40798-025-00819-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40798-025-00819-8\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40798-025-00819-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]],"date-time":"2025-03-11T09:21:27Z","timestamp":1741684887000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s40798-025-00819-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["819"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40798-025-00819-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["2198-9761"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2198-9761","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"8 February 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"22 January 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11 March 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All participants gave their informed consent prior to assessment, with all ethical procedures compliant with the ethical standards of the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (#29197) and the Helsinki Declaration of 1964 and its later amendments.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"No individual person\u2019s data in any form, case reports or data from underaged individuals have been included in this manuscript.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for Publication"}},{"value":"Since completion of the research, authors MC, JF and OW have received salary support from BrainEye.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}},{"value":"JB has no potential conflicts of interest with the content of this article.","order":5,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Conflicts of Interest"}}],"article-number":"24"}}