{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,7]],"date-time":"2026-11-07T07:20:39Z","timestamp":1794036039137,"version":"4.8.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775779200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775779200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sports Med - Open"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The tennis serve is a fundamental stroke in a player\u2019s performance during matches. But it may be also eminently traumatic as it causes very high joint mechanical loading which can lead to injury regardless of the player\u2019s experience, sex or age. This narrative review aims to synthesize current scientific knowledge on the key factors contributing to changes in joint mechanical loadings during the tennis serve and its potential association with overuse shoulder, elbow, wrist and lower back injuries.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Main Body<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The databases PubMed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and SPORTDiscus were used to search the related literatures. The publications that evaluated joint mechanical loadings through 3D biomechanical serve motion capture or video analysis in tennis players of all ages, sexes and competitive levels, with or without epidemiological monitoring of injuries were included. Most studies have involved small populations of expert able-bodied male players and focused only on the flat first serve. The results show that multiple factors \u2013 including skill level, energy flow, waiter\u2019s serve technique, temporal kinematics, fatigue and racket specifications - seem to influence upper limb and lower back loadings, thereby influencing injury risks. The impact of serve type (kick, slice or flat), leg drive and backswing style (full or abbreviated) on joint loadings remains unclear.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Teaching proper serving technique, choosing appropriate equipment and training conditions can limit the intensity of forces and moments applied on the joints and therefore decrease the risk of injury. However, further research is needed on this topic, especially in under-represented populations such as female, lower-level, juniors, and wheelchair tennis players.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-026-01015-y","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T15:58:05Z","timestamp":1775836685000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Tennis Serve Biomechanics, Joint Load Mechanics and Overuse Injuries: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4114-8947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caroline","family":"Martin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4675-0120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierre","family":"Touzard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9340-7066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Loic","family":"Fourel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0655-8980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Babette","family":"M Pluim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"1015_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2010.11868509","volume":"10","author":"M Reid","year":"2010","unstructured":"Reid M, McMurtrie D, Crespo M. The relationship between match statistics and top 100 ranking in professional men\u2019s tennis. Int J Perform Anal Sport Routledge. 2010;10:131\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/24748668.2010.11868509.","journal-title":"Int J Perform Anal Sport Routledge"},{"key":"1015_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1147","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2013.775472","volume":"31","author":"S Ma","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ma S, Liu C, Tan Y, Ma SC. Winning matches in Grand Slam men\u2019s singles: An analysis of player performance-related variables from 1991 to 2008. J Sports Sci. 2013;31:1147\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/02640414.2013.775472.","journal-title":"J Sports Sci"},{"key":"1015_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2021.1931777","volume":"21","author":"EG Brown","year":"2021","unstructured":"Brown EG. A faster serve has more impact on success for female elite tennis players than males. Int J Perform Anal Sport. 2021;21:600\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/24748668.2021.1931777.","journal-title":"Int J Perform Anal Sport"},{"key":"1015_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2012.671355","volume":"12","author":"S Sakurai","year":"2013","unstructured":"Sakurai S, Reid M, Elliott B. Ball spin in the tennis serve: spin rate and axis of rotation. Sports Biomech Int Soc Biomech Sports. 2013;12:23\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14763141.2012.671355.","journal-title":"Sports Biomech Int Soc Biomech Sports"},{"key":"1015_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1080\/24748668.2015.11868812","volume":"15","author":"A S\u00e1nchez-Pay","year":"2015","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez-Pay A, Sanz-Rivas D, Torres-Luque G. Match analysis in a wheelchair tennis tournament. Int J Perform Anal Sport Routledge. 2015;15:540\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/24748668.2015.11868812.","journal-title":"Int J Perform Anal Sport Routledge"},{"key":"1015_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1177\/17479541221088836","volume":"18","author":"A Filipcic","year":"2023","unstructured":"Filipcic A, Crespo M, Filipcic T. Practice and match workload of a female tennis player in two annual seasons: A single-case study. Int J Sports Sci Coach SAGE Publications. 2023;18:915\u201322. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/17479541221088836.","journal-title":"Int J Sports Sci Coach SAGE Publications"},{"key":"1015_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738116657074","volume":"8","author":"NL Myers","year":"2016","unstructured":"Myers NL, Sciascia AD, Kibler WB, Uhl TL. Volume-based Interval Training Program for Elite Tennis Players. Sports Health. 2016;8:536\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1941738116657074.","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"1015_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12178-018-9452-9","volume":"11","author":"MC Fu","year":"2018","unstructured":"Fu MC, Ellenbecker TS, Renstrom PA, Windler GS, Dines DM. Epidemiology of injuries in tennis players. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2018;11:1\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12178-018-9452-9.","journal-title":"Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med"},{"key":"1015_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1080\/00913847.1980.11948600","volume":"8","author":"J Priest","year":"1980","unstructured":"Priest J, Braden V, Gerberich-Goodwin S. The elbow and tennis, part 2: study of players with pain. Physician Sports Med. 1980;8:77\u201385.","journal-title":"Physician Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-529-20","volume":"56","author":"HJ Robison","year":"2021","unstructured":"Robison HJ, Boltz AJ, Morris SN, Collins CL, Chandran A. Epidemiology of Injuries in National Collegiate Athletic Association Women\u2019s Tennis: 2014\u20132015 Through 2018\u20132019. J Athl Train. 2021;56:766\u201372. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4085\/1062-6050-529-20.","journal-title":"J Athl Train"},{"key":"1015_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-459-20","volume":"56","author":"HJ Robison","year":"2021","unstructured":"Robison HJ, Boltz AJ, Morris SN, Collins CL, Chandran A. Epidemiology of Injuries in National Collegiate Athletic Association Men\u2019s Tennis: 2014\u20132015 Through 2018\u20132019. J Athl Train. 2021;56:773\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4085\/1062-6050-459-20.","journal-title":"J Athl Train"},{"key":"1015_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1589\/rika.26.631","volume":"26","author":"D Kimura","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kimura D, Iwata A, Kawasaki J, Shima M, Okuda K. A survey of sport injuries in wheelchair tennis players. Rigakuryoho Kagaku. 2011;26:631\u20135.","journal-title":"Rigakuryoho Kagaku"},{"key":"1015_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.5435\/JAAOS-D-13-00148","volume":"23","author":"JS Dines","year":"2015","unstructured":"Dines JS, Bedi A, Williams PN, Dodson CC, Ellenbecker TS, Altchek DW, et al. Tennis injuries: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and treatment. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2015;23:181\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5435\/JAAOS-D-13-00148.","journal-title":"J Am Acad Orthop Surg"},{"key":"1015_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-5919(20)30259-3","volume":"14","author":"WB Kibler","year":"1995","unstructured":"Kibler WB. Biomechanical analysis of the shoulder during tennis activities. Clin Sports Med. 1995;14:79\u201385.","journal-title":"Clin Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2012-091164","volume":"46","author":"G Abrams","year":"2012","unstructured":"Abrams G, Renstrom P, Safran M. Epidemiology of musculoskeletal injury in the tennis player. Br J Sports Med. 2012;46:492\u20138.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199410000-00004","volume":"26","author":"W Kibler","year":"1994","unstructured":"Kibler W. Clinical biomechanics of the elbow in tennis: implications for evaluation and diagnosis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;26:1203\u20136.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"1015_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0838.2010.01129.x","volume":"22","author":"N Hjelm","year":"2012","unstructured":"Hjelm N, Werner S, Renstrom P. Injury risk factors in junior tennis players: a prospective 2-year study. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2012;22:40\u20138.","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"key":"1015_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1186\/s13018-018-1017-5","volume":"13","author":"R Aicale","year":"2018","unstructured":"Aicale R, Tarantino D, Maffulli N. Overuse injuries in sport: a comprehensive overview. J Orthop Surg. 2018;13:309. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s13018-018-1017-5.","journal-title":"J Orthop Surg"},{"key":"1015_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199506000-00006","volume":"27","author":"MR Hutchinson","year":"1995","unstructured":"Hutchinson MR, Laprade RF, Burnett QM, Moss R, Terpstra J. Injury surveillance at the USTA Boys\u2019 Tennis Championships: a 6-yr study. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27:826\u201330.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"1015_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1177\/19417381211051643","volume":"14","author":"F Johansson","year":"2022","unstructured":"Johansson F, Cools A, Gabbett T, Fernandez-Fernandez J, Skillgate E. Association Between Spikes in External Training Load and Shoulder Injuries in Competitive Adolescent Tennis Players: The SMASH Cohort Study. Sports Health Multidiscip Approach. 2022;14:103\u201310. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/19417381211051643.","journal-title":"Sports Health Multidiscip Approach"},{"key":"1015_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1123\/jsr.19.2.161","volume":"19","author":"I-H Jeon","year":"2010","unstructured":"Jeon I-H, Kochhar H, Lee J-M, Kyung H-S, Min W-K, Cho H-S, et al. Ultrasonographic evaluation of the shoulder in elite wheelchair tennis players. J Sport Rehabil. 2010;19:161\u201372.","journal-title":"J Sport Rehabil"},{"key":"1015_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1097\/JSA.0b013e3182432cf2","volume":"20","author":"W Kibler","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kibler W, Thomas S. Pathomechanics of the throwing shoulder. Sports Med Arthrosc Rev. 2012;20:22\u20139.","journal-title":"Sports Med Arthrosc Rev"},{"key":"1015_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fett D, Trompeter K, Platen P. Prevalence of back pain in a group of elite athletes exposed to repetitive overhead activity. Jan Y-K, editor. PLOS ONE. 2019;14:e0210429. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0210429","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210429"},{"key":"1015_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-199825020-00004","volume":"25","author":"A Rettig","year":"1998","unstructured":"Rettig A. Elbow, forearm and wrist injuries in the athlete. Sports Med. 1998;25:115\u201330.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pop.2004.11.015","volume":"32","author":"K Parmelee-Peters","year":"2005","unstructured":"Parmelee-Peters K, Eathorne S. The wrist: common injuries and management. Prim Care. 2005;32:35\u201370.","journal-title":"Prim Care"},{"key":"1015_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-016-0630-x","volume":"47","author":"M Stuelcken","year":"2017","unstructured":"Stuelcken M, Mellifont D, Gorman A, Sayers M. Wrist Injuries in Tennis Players: A Narrative Review. Sports Med. 2017;47:857\u201368. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-016-0630-x.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2005.023184","volume":"40","author":"B Pluim","year":"2006","unstructured":"Pluim B, Staal J, Windler G, Jayanthi N. Tennis injuries: occurence, aetiology and prevention. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40:464\u20138.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2005.023341","volume":"40","author":"J Young","year":"2006","unstructured":"Young J, Pearce A, Kane R, Pain M. Leaving the professional tennis circuit: exploratory study of experiences and reactions from elite female athletes. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40:477\u201382.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2005.018341","volume":"39","author":"R Bahr","year":"2005","unstructured":"Bahr R, Krosshaug T. Understanding injury mechanisms: a key component of preventing injuries in sport. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39:324\u20139.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1097\/JSM.0b013e3180592a48","volume":"17","author":"W Meeuwisse","year":"2007","unstructured":"Meeuwisse W, Tyreman H, Hagel B, Emery C. A dynamic model of etiology in sport injury: the recursive nature of risk and causation. Clin J Sport Med. 2007;17:215\u20139.","journal-title":"Clin J Sport Med"},{"key":"1015_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2016-096040","volume":"51","author":"J Windt","year":"2017","unstructured":"Windt J, Gabbett TJ. How do training and competition workloads relate to injury? The workload-injury aetiology model. Br J Sports Med. 2017;51:428\u201335. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjsports-2016-096040.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-020-01413-6","volume":"51","author":"JT Kalkhoven","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kalkhoven JT, Watsford ML, Coutts AJ, Edwards WB, Impellizzeri FM. Training Load and Injury: Causal Pathways and Future Directions. Sports Med. 2021;51:1137\u201350. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s40279-020-01413-6.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/1758-2555-4-45","volume":"4","author":"J Hamill","year":"2012","unstructured":"Hamill J, Palmer C, Van Emmerik REA. Coordinative variability and overuse injury. Sports Med Arthrosc Rehabil Ther Technol. 2012;4:45. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/1758-2555-4-45.","journal-title":"Sports Med Arthrosc Rehabil Ther Technol"},{"key":"1015_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2021.1959947","volume":"23","author":"D Lloyd","year":"2024","unstructured":"Lloyd D. The future of in-field sports biomechanics: wearables plus modelling compute real-time in vivo tissue loading to prevent and repair musculoskeletal injuries. Sports Biomech. 2024;23:1284\u2013312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14763141.2021.1959947.","journal-title":"Sports Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546510363402","volume":"38","author":"A Anz","year":"2010","unstructured":"Anz A, Bushnell B, Griffin L, Noonan T, Torry M, Hawkins R. Correlation of torque and elbow injury in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38:1368\u201374.","journal-title":"Am J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.2478\/v10078-012-0059-8","volume":"34","author":"DW Keeley","year":"2012","unstructured":"Keeley DW, Oliver GD, Dougherty CP. A biomechanical model correlating shoulder kinetics to pain in young baseball pitchers. J Hum Kinet. 2012;34:15\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2478\/v10078-012-0059-8.","journal-title":"J Hum Kinet"},{"key":"1015_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(89)90109-7","volume":"22","author":"RE Bahamonde","year":"1989","unstructured":"Bahamonde RE. Kinetic analysis of the serving arm during the performance of the tennis serve. J Biomech. 1989;22:983. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0021-9290(89)90109-7.","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2007.036657","volume":"41","author":"M Reid","year":"2007","unstructured":"Reid M, Elliott B, Alderson J. Shoulder joint loading in the high performance flat and kick tennis serves. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:884\u20139.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12043","volume":"24","author":"C Martin","year":"2014","unstructured":"Martin C, Bideau B, Ropars M, Delamarche P, Kulpa R. Upper limb joint kinetic analysis during tennis serve: Assessment of competitive level on efficiency and injury risks. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24:60\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/sms.12043.","journal-title":"Scand J Med Sci Sports"},{"key":"1015_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e318299ae3b","volume":"45","author":"C Martin","year":"2013","unstructured":"Martin C, Kulpa R, Ropars M, Delamarche P, Bideau B. Identification of temporal pathomechanical factors during the tennis serve. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45:2113\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1249\/MSS.0b013e318299ae3b.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"1015_CR41","unstructured":"Touzard P. L\u2019\u00e9volution biom\u00e9canique du service des jeunes joueurs de tennis \u00e9lites: identification des facteurs de performance et de risque de blessures [Internet] [PhD Thesis]. [France]: Rennes 2 University; 2021. https:\/\/theses.hal.science\/tel-03463226"},{"key":"1015_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"D\u2019Angeli C. The influence of impairment type on the biomechanics of the wheelchair tennis serve technique [Internet]. [United Kingdom]: Loughborough University; 2022. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.26174\/thesis.lboro.20134433.v1","DOI":"10.26174\/thesis.lboro.20134433.v1"},{"key":"1015_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/S1440-2440(03)80011-7","volume":"6","author":"B Elliott","year":"2003","unstructured":"Elliott B, Fleisig G, Nicholls R, Escamilia R. Technique effects on upper limb loading in the tennis serve. J Sci Med Sport. 2003;6:76\u201387.","journal-title":"J Sci Med Sport"},{"key":"1015_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcl.2010.07.002","volume":"48","author":"M Anderson","year":"2010","unstructured":"Anderson M, Alford B. Overhead throwing injuries of the shoulder and elbow. Radiol Clin North Am. 2010;48:1137\u201354.","journal-title":"Radiol Clin North Am"},{"key":"1015_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1249\/mss.0b013e31815c6d61","volume":"40","author":"M Reid","year":"2008","unstructured":"Reid M, Elliott B, Alderson J. Lower-limb coordination and shoulder joint mechanics in the tennis serve. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:308\u201315. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1249\/mss.0b013e31815c6d61.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"1015_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000004848","volume":"38","author":"L Fourel","year":"2024","unstructured":"Fourel L, Touzard P, Fadier M, Arles L, Deghaies K, Ozan S, et al. Relationships Between Force-Time Curve Variables and Tennis Serve Performance in Competitive Tennis Players. J Strength Cond Res. 2024;38:1667\u201374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1519\/JSC.0000000000004848.","journal-title":"J Strength Cond Res"},{"key":"1015_CR47","first-page":"Article3","volume":"40","author":"A Aguinaldo","year":"2022","unstructured":"Aguinaldo A, Nicholson K. Pelvis energy flow and ground reaction force predictors of elbow torque in high school and collegiate baseball pitchers. ISBS - Conf Proc Arch. 2022;40:Article3.","journal-title":"ISBS - Conf Proc Arch"},{"key":"1015_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.H.01341","volume":"91","author":"S Braun","year":"2009","unstructured":"Braun S, Kokmeyer D, Millet P. Shoulder injuries in the throwing athlete. J Bone Jt Surg. 2009;91:966\u201378.","journal-title":"J Bone Jt Surg"},{"key":"1015_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.2519\/jospt.1995.21.1.28","volume":"21","author":"H Lee","year":"1995","unstructured":"Lee H. Mechanisms of neck and shoulder injuries in tennis players. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1995;21:28\u201337.","journal-title":"J Orthop Sports Phys Ther"},{"key":"1015_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2018.1539527","volume":"19","author":"P Touzard","year":"2019","unstructured":"Touzard P, Kulpa R, Bideau B, Montalvan B, Martin C. Biomechanical analysis of the waiter\u2019s serve on upper limb loads in young elite tennis players. Eur J Sport Sci. 2019;19:765\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/17461391.2018.1539527.","journal-title":"Eur J Sport Sci"},{"key":"1015_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1007\/s00264-010-1038-0","volume":"34","author":"C Kirchhoff","year":"2010","unstructured":"Kirchhoff C, Imhoff AB. Posterosuperior and anterosuperior impingement of the shoulder in overhead athletes\u2014evolving concepts. Int Orthop. 2010;34:1049\u201358. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00264-010-1038-0.","journal-title":"Int Orthop"},{"key":"1015_CR52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546509346408","volume":"38","author":"T Mihata","year":"2010","unstructured":"Mihata T, McGarry M, Kinoshita M, Lee T. Excessive glenohumeral horizontal abduction as occurs during the late cocking phase of the throwing motion can be critical for internal impingement. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38:369\u201374.","journal-title":"Am J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1053\/jars.2003.50128","volume":"19","author":"S Burkhart","year":"2003","unstructured":"Burkhart S, Morgan C, Kibler W. The disabled throwing shoulder: spectrum of pathology Part I: pathoanatomy and biomechanics. Arthroscopy. 2003;19:404\u201320.","journal-title":"Arthroscopy"},{"key":"1015_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2751","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546514547173","volume":"42","author":"C Martin","year":"2014","unstructured":"Martin C, Bideau B, Bideau N, Nicolas G, Delamarche P, Kulpa R. Energy flow analysis during the tennis serve: comparison between injured and noninjured tennis players. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42:2751\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0363546514547173.","journal-title":"Am J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3011","DOI":"10.1007\/s10439-011-0418-y","volume":"39","author":"A Sheets","year":"2011","unstructured":"Sheets A, Abrams G, Corazza S, Safran M, Andriacchi T. Kinematics differences between the flat, kick and slice serves measured using a markerless motion capture method. Ann Biomed Eng. 2011;39:3011\u201320.","journal-title":"Ann Biomed Eng"},{"key":"1015_CR56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1249\/JSR.0b013e3182a4bad0","volume":"12","author":"N Jayanthi","year":"2013","unstructured":"Jayanthi N, Esser S, Racket Sports. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2013;12:329\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1249\/JSR.0b013e3182a4bad0.","journal-title":"Curr Sports Med Rep"},{"key":"1015_CR57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2012-091371","volume":"48","author":"G Abrams","year":"2013","unstructured":"Abrams G, Harris A, Andriacchi T, Safran M. Biomechanical analysis of three tennis serve types using a markerless system. Br J Sports Med. 2013;48:339\u201342.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1562","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31828bea5e","volume":"45","author":"A Campbell","year":"2013","unstructured":"Campbell A, Straker L, O\u2019Sullivan P, Elliott B, Reid M. Lumbar Loading in the Elite Adolescent Tennis Serve: Link to Low Back Pain. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45:1562\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1249\/MSS.0b013e31828bea5e.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"1015_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.otsm.2021.150802","volume":"29","author":"MF Schubert","year":"2021","unstructured":"Schubert MF, Duralde XA. Posterior Shoulder Instability in the Throwing Athlete. Oper Tech Sports Med. 2021;29:150802. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.otsm.2021.150802.","journal-title":"Oper Tech Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2005.023465","volume":"40","author":"J Maquirriain","year":"2006","unstructured":"Maquirriain J, Ghisi JP. The incidence and distribution of stress fractures in elite tennis players. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40:454\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjsm.2005.023465. discussion 459.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2007.037747","volume":"41","author":"F Alyas","year":"2007","unstructured":"Alyas F, Turner M, Connell D. MRI findings in the lumbar spines of asymptomatic, adolescent, elite tennis players. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:836\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjsm.2007.037747. discussion 841.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738115598747","volume":"7","author":"GD Myer","year":"2015","unstructured":"Myer GD, Jayanthi N, Difiori JP, Faigenbaum AD, Kiefer AW, Logerstedt D, et al. Sport Specialization, Part I: Does Early Sports Specialization Increase Negative Outcomes and Reduce the Opportunity for Success in Young Athletes? Sports Health. 2015;7:437\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1941738115598747.","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"1015_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2007.036145","volume":"41","author":"M Reid","year":"2007","unstructured":"Reid M, Elliott B, Alderson J. Shoulder joint kinetics of the elite wheelchair tennis serve. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:739\u201344. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bjsm.2007.036145.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0159979","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0159979","volume":"11","author":"C Martin","year":"2016","unstructured":"Martin C, Bideau B, Delamarche P, Kulpa R. Influence of a prolonged tennis match play on serve biomechanics. PLoS ONE. 2016;11:e0159979. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0159979.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"1015_CR65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.11.4.433","volume":"11","author":"B Elliott","year":"1995","unstructured":"Elliott B, Marshall N, Noffal G. Contributions of upper limb segment rotations during the power serve in tennis. J Appl Biomech. 1995;11:433\u201342.","journal-title":"J Appl Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738109334274","volume":"1","author":"NA Jayanthi","year":"2009","unstructured":"Jayanthi NA, O\u2019Boyle J, Durazo-Arvizu RA. Risk factors for medical withdrawals in United States tennis association junior national tennis tournaments: a descriptive epidemiologic study. Sports Health. 2009;1:231\u20135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1941738109334274.","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"1015_CR67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1249\/JES.0b013e31803ec43e","volume":"35","author":"E Hennig","year":"2007","unstructured":"Hennig E. Influence of racket properties on injuries and performance in tennis. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2007;35:62\u20136. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1249\/JES.0b013e31803ec43e.","journal-title":"Exerc Sport Sci Rev"},{"key":"1015_CR68","first-page":"259","volume":"12","author":"R Creveaux","year":"2013","unstructured":"Creveaux R, Dumas R, Hautier C, Mac\u00e9 P, Cheze L, Rogowski I. Joint kinetics to assess the influence of the racket on a tennis player\u2019s shoulder. J Sport Sci Med. 2013;12:259\u201366.","journal-title":"J Sport Sci Med"},{"key":"1015_CR69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.62617\/mcb.v21i2.374","volume":"21","author":"Q Miao","year":"2024","unstructured":"Miao Q, Zhou H. Machine learning model to study effects of lightweight racket design on elbow and shoulder loading during tennis serve. Mol Cell Biomech. 2024;21:374. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.62617\/mcb.v21i2.374.","journal-title":"Mol Cell Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1080\/14763140701491500","volume":"6","author":"S Tanabe","year":"2007","unstructured":"Tanabe S, Ito A. A three-dimensional analysis of the contributions of upper limb joint movements to horizontal racket head velocity at ball impact during tennis serving. Sports Biomech. 2007;6:418\u201333.","journal-title":"Sports Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Wang S-Y, Huang C. Effects of using different moment of inertia of racket on tennis serve. University of San Francisco: Unpublished; 2001 [cited 2025 Feb 19]. pp. 39\u201342. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13140\/2.1.1269.6328","DOI":"10.13140\/2.1.1269.6328"},{"key":"1015_CR72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e104785","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104785","volume":"9","author":"I Rogowski","year":"2014","unstructured":"Rogowski I, Creveaux T, Ch\u00e8ze L, Mac\u00e9 P, Dumas R. Effects of the racket polar moment of inertia on dominant upper limb joint moments during tennis serve. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e104785. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0104785.","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"1015_CR73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1104146","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1104146","volume":"14","author":"P Touzard","year":"2023","unstructured":"Touzard P, Lecomte C, Bideau B, Kulpa R, Fourel L, Fadier M, et al. There is no rush to upgrade the tennis racket in young intermediate competitive players: The effects of scaling racket on serve biomechanics and performance. Front Psychol. 2023;14:1104146. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1104146.","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"1015_CR74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.2165\/00007256-199826020-00005","volume":"26","author":"J Bylak","year":"1998","unstructured":"Bylak J, Hutchinson MR. Common Sports Injuries in Young Tennis Players. Sports Med. 1998;26:119\u201332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2165\/00007256-199826020-00005.","journal-title":"Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1080\/00913847.2020.1714512","volume":"48","author":"S O\u2019Connor","year":"2020","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor S, Huseyin OR, Whyte EF, Lacey P. A 2-year prospective study of injuries and illness in an elite national junior tennis program. Phys Sportsmed Taylor Francis. 2020;48:342\u20138. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00913847.2020.1714512.","journal-title":"Phys Sportsmed Taylor Francis"},{"key":"1015_CR76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Fadier M, Touzard P, Lecomte C, Bideau B, Cantin N, Martin C. Do serve distance and net height modify serve biomechanics in young tennis players? Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2022;174795412211141. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/17479541221114106.","DOI":"10.1177\/17479541221114106"},{"key":"1015_CR77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.52383\/itfcoaching.v18i51.604","volume":"18","author":"D Miley","year":"2010","unstructured":"Miley D. Serve Rally and Score\u2026 The ITF tennis Play and Stay Campaign and Tennis10s. ITF Coach Sport Sci Rev. 2010;18:4\u20137.","journal-title":"ITF Coach Sport Sci Rev"},{"key":"1015_CR78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2019.109533","volume":"99","author":"TR Derrick","year":"2020","unstructured":"Derrick TR, Van Den Bogert AJ, Cereatti A, Dumas R, Fantozzi S, Leardini A. ISB recommendations on the reporting of intersegmental forces and moments during human motion analysis. J Biomech. 2020;99:109533. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2019.109533.","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1007\/s12178-020-09675-3","volume":"13","author":"RG Alrabaa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alrabaa RG, Lobao MH, Levine WN. Rotator Cuff Injuries in Tennis Players. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2020;13:734\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s12178-020-09675-3.","journal-title":"Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med"},{"key":"1015_CR80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(99)00127-X","volume":"32","author":"G Fleisig","year":"1999","unstructured":"Fleisig G, Barrentine S, Zheng N, Escamilia R, Andrews J. Kinematic and kinetic comparison of baseball pitching among various levels of development. J Biomech. 1999;32:1371\u20135.","journal-title":"J Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.2007.038307","volume":"41","author":"D Eygendaal","year":"2007","unstructured":"Eygendaal D, Rahussen F, Diercks R. Biomechanics of the elbow joint in tennis players and relation to pathology. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41:820\u20133.","journal-title":"Br J Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1080\/14763141.2011.629302","volume":"10","author":"G Abrams","year":"2011","unstructured":"Abrams G, Sheets A, Andriacchi T, Safran M. Review of tennis serve motion analysis and the biomechanics of three serve types with implications for injury. Sports Biomech. 2011;10:378\u201390.","journal-title":"Sports Biomech"},{"key":"1015_CR83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-5919(20)30935-2","volume":"7","author":"MR Marks","year":"1988","unstructured":"Marks MR, Haas SS, Wiesel SW. Low back pain in the competitive tennis player. Clin Sports Med. 1988;7:277\u201387.","journal-title":"Clin Sports Med"},{"key":"1015_CR84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmr.2006.05.005","volume":"17","author":"RH Perkins","year":"2006","unstructured":"Perkins RH, Davis D. Musculoskeletal injuries in tennis. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2006;17:609\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pmr.2006.05.005.","journal-title":"Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am"},{"key":"1015_CR85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199410000-00005","volume":"26","author":"A Rettig","year":"1994","unstructured":"Rettig A. Wrist problems in the tennis player. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;26:1207\u201312.","journal-title":"Med Sci Sports Exerc"},{"key":"1015_CR86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-5919(20)30561-5","volume":"11","author":"P Dell","year":"1992","unstructured":"Dell P. Traumatic disorders of the distal radioulnar joint. Clin Sports Med. 1992;11:141\u201359.","journal-title":"Clin Sports Med"}],"container-title":["Sports Medicine - Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40798-026-01015-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s40798-026-01015-y","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s40798-026-01015-y.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T15:58:10Z","timestamp":1775836690000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1186\/s40798-026-01015-y"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]]},"references-count":86,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]}},"alternative-id":["1015"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s40798-026-01015-y","relation":{},"ISSN":["2198-9761"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2198-9761","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"30 September 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"23 March 2026","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"10 April 2026","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for Publication"}},{"value":"Caroline Martin, Pierre Touzard, Loic Fourel, and Babette Pluim declare they have no competing interests (financial interests, professional interests, personal relationships or personal beliefs) with the content of this article.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing Interests"}}],"article-number":"42"}}