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The outcomes of\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection vary, ranging from asymptomatic to severe, and are associated with factors such as host immunity, parasite genetic diversity, and multiplicity of infection (MOI). Using seven neutral microsatellite markers, the current study investigated\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      genetic diversity and MOI in both asymptomatic and symptomatic malaria individuals in Uganda.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This cross-sectional study analyzed 225\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      isolates from both asymptomatic and symptomatic malaria patients, ranging in age from 6\u00a0months to\u2009\u2265\u200918\u00a0years.\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      genetic diversity, MOI, and multi-locus linkage disequilibrium (LD) were assessed through genotyping of seven neutral microsatellite markers: Poly-\u03b1, TA1, TA109, PfPK2, 2490, C2M34\u2013313, and C3M69\u2013383. Genetic data analysis was performed using appropriate genetic analysis software.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      infections exhibited high genetic diversity in both asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals. The mean expected heterozygosity (He) ranged from 0.79 in symptomatic uncomplicated malaria cases to 0.81 in asymptomatic individuals. There was no significant difference (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090.33) in MOI between individuals with asymptomatic and symptomatic infections, with the mean MOI ranging from 1.92 in symptomatic complicated cases to 2.10 in asymptomatic individuals. Polyclonal infections were prevalent, varying from 58.5% in symptomatic complicated malaria to 63% in symptomatic uncomplicated malaria cases. A significant linkage disequilibrium (LD) was observed between asymptomatic and symptomatic uncomplicated\/complicated infections (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.01). Genetic differentiation was low, with F\n                      <jats:sub>ST<\/jats:sub>\n                      values ranging from 0.0034 to 0.0105 among\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      parasite populations in asymptomatic and symptomatic uncomplicated\/complicated infections.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      There is a high level of\n                      <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                      genetic diversity and MOI among both symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals in Uganda. Asymptomatic carriers harbor a diverse range of parasites, which poses challenges for malaria control and necessitates targeted interventions to develop effective strategies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-024-00656-7","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,14]],"date-time":"2024-11-14T05:45:05Z","timestamp":1731563105000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Plasmodium falciparum genetic diversity and multiplicity of infection among asymptomatic and symptomatic malaria-infected individuals in Uganda"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"52","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7544-3872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alex","family":"Mwesigwa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moses","family":"Ocan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bryan","family":"Cummings","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benson","family":"Musinguzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shahid","family":"Kiyaga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven M.","family":"Kiwuwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Okoboi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Castelnuovo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Everd Maniple","family":"Bikaitwoha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joan N.","family":"Kalyango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Karamagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joaniter I.","family":"Nankabirwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel L.","family":"Nsobya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pauline","family":"Byakika-Kibwika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"656_CR1","volume-title":"World malaria report 2022","author":"WHO","year":"2022","unstructured":"WHO. 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Study approval and a waiver of consent were provided by the Makerere University School of Medicine Institutional Review Board (# Mak-SOMREC-2021-152) and the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (# HS2744ES).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"86"}}