{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,25]],"date-time":"2026-10-25T09:10:13Z","timestamp":1792919413126,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]],"date-time":"2024-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721174400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]],"date-time":"2024-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721174400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001316","name":"Abbott Laboratories","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001316","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bioelectron Med"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) has demonstrated multiple benefits in treating chronic pain and other clinical disorders related to sensorimotor dysfunctions. However, the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood, including how electrode placement in relation to the spinal cord neuroanatomy influences epidural spinal recordings (ESRs). To characterize this relationship, this study utilized stimulation applied at various anatomical sections of the spinal column, including at levels of the intervertebral disc and regions correlating to the dorsal root entry zone.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Two electrode arrays were surgically implanted into the dorsal epidural space of the swine. The stimulation leads were positioned such that the caudal-most electrode contact was at the level of a thoracic intervertebral segment. Intraoperative cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) images were utilized to precisely determine the location of the epidural leads relative to the spinal column. High-resolution microCT imaging and 3D-model reconstructions of the explanted spinal cord illustrated precise positioning and dimensions of the epidural leads in relation to the surrounding neuroanatomy, including the spinal rootlets of the dorsal and ventral columns of the spinal cord. In a separate swine cohort, implanted epidural leads were used for SCS and recording evoked ESRs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Reconstructed 3D-models of the swine spinal cord with epidural lead implants demonstrated considerable distinctions in the dimensions of a single electrode contact on a standard industry epidural stimulation lead compared to dorsal rootlets at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ). At the intervertebral segment, it was observed that a single electrode contact may cover 20-25% of the DREZ if positioned laterally. Electrode contacts were estimated to be ~0.75 mm from the margins of the DREZ when placed at the midline. Furthermore, ventral rootlets were observed to travel in proximity and parallel to dorsal rootlets at this level prior to separation into their respective sides of the spinal cord. Cathodic stimulation at the level of the intervertebral disc, compared to an \u2018off-disc\u2019 stimulation (7 mm rostral), demonstrated considerable variations in the features of recorded ESRs, such as amplitude and shape, and evoked unintended motor activation at lower stimulation thresholds. This substantial change may be due to the influence of nearby ventral roots. To further illustrate the influence of rootlet activation vs. dorsal column activation, the stimulation lead was displaced laterally at ~2.88 mm from the midline, resulting in variances in both evoked compound action potential (ECAP) components and electromyography (EMG) components in ESRs at lower stimulation thresholds.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results of this study suggest that the ECAP and EMG components of recorded ESRs can vary depending on small differences in the location of the stimulating electrodes within the spinal anatomy, such as at the level of the intervertebral segment. Furthermore, the effects of sub-centimeter lateral displacement of the stimulation lead from the midline, leading to significant changes in electrophysiological metrics. The results of this pilot study reveal the importance of the small displacement of the electrodes that can cause significant changes to evoked responses SCS. These results may provide further valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms and assist in optimizing future SCS-related applications.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s42234-024-00149-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]],"date-time":"2024-07-17T03:02:04Z","timestamp":1721185324000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["The role of spinal cord neuroanatomy in the variances of epidural spinal recordings"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Danny V.","family":"Lam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin","family":"Chin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meagan K.","family":"Brucker-Hahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Megan","family":"Settell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ben","family":"Romanauski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nishant","family":"Verma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aniruddha","family":"Upadhye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashlesha","family":"Deshmukh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron","family":"Skubal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuichiro","family":"Nishiyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jian","family":"Hao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. Luis","family":"Lujan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce","family":"Knudsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephan","family":"Blanz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott F.","family":"Lempka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kip A.","family":"Ludwig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew J.","family":"Shoffstall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyun-Joo","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erika Ross","family":"Ellison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingming","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3885-4509","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Igor","family":"Lavrov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"149_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Anaya, Carlos J., Hans J. Zander, Robert D. Graham, Vishwanath Sankarasubramanian, and Scott F. Lempka. 2020a. \u201cEvoked Potentials Recorded From the Spinal Cord During Neurostimulation for Pain: A Computational Modeling Study.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface 23(1):64\u201373. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ner.12965.","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12965"},{"issue":"1","key":"149_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1093\/pm\/pnaa215","volume":"22","author":"Devin D Antonovich","year":"2021","unstructured":"Antonovich Devin D, Gama Willy, Ritter Alexandra, Wolf Bethany Jacobs, Nobles Ryan H, Selassie Meron A, Gabriel Hillegass M. Reoperation Rates of Percutaneous and Paddle Leads in Spinal Cord Stimulator Systems: A Single-Center Retrospective Analysis. Pain Medicine. 2021;22(1):34\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/pm\/pnaa215.","journal-title":"Pain Medicine"},{"key":"149_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Barolat, G. 1998. \u201cEpidural Spinal Cord Stimulation: Anatomical and Electrical Properties of the Intraspinal Structures Relevant to Spinal Cord Stimulation and Clinical Correlations.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface, 1: 63-71. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1525-1403.1998.tb00019.x.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1403.1998.tb00019.x"},{"key":"149_CR4","volume-title":"Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain","author":"Mark F Bear","year":"2007","unstructured":"Bear Mark F, Connors Barry W, Paradiso Michael A. Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.","edition":"3"},{"key":"149_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Calvert, Jonathan S., Radu Darie, Samuel R. Parker, Elias Shaaya, Sohail Syed, Bryan L. McLaughlin, Jared S. Fridley, and David A. Borton. 2022. \u201cSpatiotemporal Distribution of Electrically Evoked Spinal Compound Action Potentials During Spinal Cord Stimulation.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface S1094715922006444. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neurom.2022.03.007.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurom.2022.03.007"},{"issue":"49","key":"149_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19326","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1688-13.2013","volume":"33","author":"M Capogrosso","year":"2013","unstructured":"Capogrosso M, Wenger N, Raspopovic S, Musienko P, Beauparlant J, BassiLuciani L, Courtine G, Micera S. A computational model for epidural electrical stimulation of spinal sensorimotor circuits. J Neurosci. 2013;33(49):19326\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1688-13.2013.","journal-title":"J Neurosci."},{"key":"149_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3269","DOI":"10.2147\/JPR.S289098","volume":"13","author":"Krishnan Chakravarthy","year":"2020","unstructured":"Chakravarthy Krishnan, Bink Hank, Dinsmoor David. Sensing Evoked Compound Action Potentials from the Spinal Cord: Novel Preclinical and Clinical Considerations for the Pain Management Researcher and Clinician. Journal of Pain Research. 2020;13:3269\u201379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2147\/JPR.S289098.","journal-title":"Journal of Pain Research"},{"key":"149_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.1985.325649","volume":"32","author":"B Coburn","year":"1985","unstructured":"Coburn B. A theoretical study of epidural electrical stimulation of the spinal cord\u2013Part II: Effects on long myelinated fibers. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1985;32:978\u201386. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TBME.1985.325649.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed Eng."},{"key":"149_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2017.00082","volume":"11","author":"Carlos A Cuellar","year":"2017","unstructured":"Cuellar Carlos A, Mendez Aldo A, Islam Riazul, Calvert Jonathan S, Grahn Peter J, Knudsen Bruce, Pham Tuan, Lee Kendall H, Lavrov Igor A. The Role of Functional Neuroanatomy of the Lumbar Spinal Cord in Effect of Epidural Stimulation. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 2017;11:82. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnana.2017.00082.","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroanatomy"},{"key":"149_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Dombovy-Johnson, Marissa L., Ryan S. D\u2019Souza, Chris Thuc Ha, and Jonathan M. Hagedorn. 2022a. \u201cIncidence and Risk Factors for Spinal Cord Stimulator Lead Migration With or Without Loss of Efficacy: A Retrospective Review of 91 Consecutive Thoracic Lead Implants.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface 25(5):731\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ner.13487.","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.13487"},{"issue":"10","key":"149_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci10100744","volume":"10","author":"Filip Fadeev","year":"2020","unstructured":"Fadeev Filip, Eremeev Anton, Bashirov Farid, Shevchenko Roman, Izmailov Andrei, Markosyan Vage, Sokolov Mikhail, Kalistratova Julia, Khalitova Anastasiia, Garifulin Ravil, Islamov Rustem, Lavrov Igor. Combined Supra- and Sub-Lesional Epidural Electrical Stimulation for Restoration of the Motor Functions after Spinal Cord Injury in Mini Pigs. Brain Sciences. 2020;10(10):744. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci10100744.","journal-title":"Brain Sciences"},{"issue":"5","key":"149_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurom.2021.11.014","volume":"25","author":"SM Falowski","year":"2022","unstructured":"Falowski SM, Kim CH, Obradovic M, Parker JL. A Prospective Multicenter Case Series Utilizing Intraoperative Neuromonitoring With Evoked Compound Action Potentials to Confirm Spinal Cord Stimulation Lead Placement. Neuromodulation. 2022;25(5):724\u201330.","journal-title":"Neuromodulation."},{"issue":"9","key":"149_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2012.05.001","volume":"30","author":"A Fedorov","year":"2012","unstructured":"Fedorov A, Beichel R, Kalpathy-Cramer J, Finet J, Fillion-Robin JC, Pujol S, Bauer C, Jennings D, Fennessy F, Sonka M, Buatti J, Aylward S, Miller JV, Pieper S, Kikinis R. 3D Slicer as an image computing platform for the Quantitative Imaging Network. Magn Reson Imaging. 2012;30(9):1323\u201341. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mri.2012.05.001.","journal-title":"Magn Reson Imaging."},{"issue":"1","key":"149_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-20703-1","volume":"12","author":"N Greiner","year":"2021","unstructured":"Greiner N, Barra B, Schiavone G, Lorach H, James N, Conti S, Kaeser M, Fallegger F, Borgognon S, Lacour S. Recruitment of upper-limb motoneurons with epidural electrical stimulation of the cervical spinal cord. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):1\u201319.","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"4","key":"149_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1109\/51.395310","volume":"14","author":"WM Grill","year":"1995","unstructured":"Grill WM, Mortimer JT. Stimulus Waveforms for Selective Neural Stimulation. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine. 1995;14(4):375\u201385. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/51.395310.","journal-title":"IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine"},{"key":"149_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3100717","volume":"36","author":"J Holsheimer","year":"1998","unstructured":"Holsheimer J. Computer modeling of spinal cord stimulation and its contribution to therapeutic efficacy. Spinal Cord. 1998;36:531\u201340.","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"issue":"5","key":"149_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02510785","volume":"33","author":"J Holsheimer","year":"1995","unstructured":"Holsheimer J, Struijk JJ, Tas NR. Effects of electrode geometry and combination on nerve fibre selectivity in spinal cord stimulation. Med Biol Eng Comput. 1995;33(5):676\u201382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/BF02510785. PMID: 8523909.","journal-title":"Med Biol Eng Comput."},{"key":"149_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02525529","volume":"35","author":"J Holsheimer","year":"1997","unstructured":"Holsheimer J, Wesselink WA. Optimum electrode geometry for spinal cord stimulation the narrow bipole and tripole. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing. 1997;35:493\u20137.","journal-title":"Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing"},{"key":"149_CR19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2017.02.034","volume":"644","author":"RustemRobertovich Islamov","year":"2017","unstructured":"Islamov RustemRobertovich, Sokolov Mikhail Evgenyevich, Bashirov FaridVagizovich, Fadeev Filip Olegovich, Shmarov Maxim Michaylovich, Naroditskiy Boris Savelyevich, Povysheva Tatyana Vyacheslavovna, Shaymardanova Gulnara Ferdinantovna, Yakupov RadikAlbertovich, Chelyshev Yuri Aleksandrovich, Lavrov Igor Aleksandrovich. A Pilot Study of Cell-Mediated Gene Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury in Mini Pigs. Neuroscience Letters. 2017;644:67\u201375. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neulet.2017.02.034.","journal-title":"Neuroscience Letters"},{"issue":"23","key":"149_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8896","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21238896","volume":"21","author":"Rustem Islamov","year":"2020","unstructured":"Islamov Rustem, Bashirov Farid, Fadeev Filip, Shevchenko Roman, Izmailov Andrei, Markosyan Vage, Sokolov Mikhail, Kuznetsov Maksim, Davleeva Maria, Garifulin Ravil, Salafutdinov Ilnur, Nurullin Leniz, Chelyshev Yuriy, Lavrov Igor. Epidural Stimulation Combined with Triple Gene Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury Treatment. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020;21(23):8896. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms21238896.","journal-title":"International Journal of Molecular Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"149_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11010144","volume":"11","author":"Rustem Islamov","year":"2022","unstructured":"Islamov Rustem, Bashirov Farid, Izmailov Andrei, Fadeev Filip, Markosyan Vage, Sokolov Mikhail, Shmarov Maksim, Logunov Denis, Naroditsky Boris, Lavrov Igor. New Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury: Autologous Genetically-Enriched Leucoconcentrate Integrated with Epidural Electrical Stimulation. Cells. 2022;11(1):144. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/cells11010144.","journal-title":"Cells"},{"key":"149_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurom.2023.04.151","volume":"26","author":"D Lam","year":"2023","unstructured":"Lam D, Kang S, Nishiyama Y, Romanauski B, Ludwig K, Ross E, Verma N, Lavrov I, Hao J, Park H-J, Zhang M. ID: 213423 Changes in Evoked Responses During Epidural Spinal Cord Stimulation Generated by Minimal Movement of Leads. Neuromodulation. 2023;26:S87.","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"149_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Lavrov I, Dy CJ, Fong AJ, Gerasimenko Y, Courtine G, Zhong H, Roy RR, Edgerton VR. Epidural stimulation induced modulation of spinal locomotor networks in adult spinal rats. J Neurosci. 2008;28(23):6022\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0080-08.2008. PMID: 18524907; PMCID: PMC2904311.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0080-08.2008"},{"issue":"2","key":"149_CR24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1403.2005.00224.x","volume":"8","author":"L Manola","year":"2005","unstructured":"Manola L, Holsheimer J, Veltink P. Technical performance of percutaneous leads for spinal cord stimulation: a modeling study. Neuromodulation. 2005;8(2):88\u201399. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1525-1403.2005.00224.x. PMID: 22151437.","journal-title":"Neuromodulation."},{"issue":"3","key":"149_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.4998","volume":"79","author":"Mekhail, Nagy, Robert M. Levy, Timothy R. Deer, Leonardo Kapural, Sean Li, Kasra Amirdelfan, Corey W. Hunter, Steven M. Rosen, Shrif J. Costandi, Steven M. Falowski, Abram H. Burgher, Jason E. Pope, Christopher A. Gilmore, Farooq A. Qureshi, Peter S. Staats, James Scowcroft, Tory McJunkin, Jonathan Carlson, Christopher K. Kim, Michael I. Yang, Thomas Stauss, Julie Pilitsis, Lawrence Poree, Evoke Study Group, Dan Brounstein, Samuel Gilbert, Gerrit E. Gmel, Robert Gorman, Ian Gould, Erin Hanson, Dean M. Karantonis, Abeer Khurram, Angela Leitner, Dave Mugan, Milan Obradovic, Zhonghua Ouyang, John Parker, Peter Single, and Nicole Soliday","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mekhail, Nagy, Robert M. Levy, Timothy R. Deer, Leonardo Kapural, Sean Li, Kasra Amirdelfan, Corey W. Hunter, Steven M. Rosen, Shrif J. Costandi, Steven M. Falowski, Abram H. Burgher, Jason E. Pope, Christopher A. Gilmore, Farooq A. Qureshi, Peter S. Staats, James Scowcroft, Tory McJunkin, Jonathan Carlson, Christopher K. Kim, Michael I. Yang, Thomas Stauss, Julie Pilitsis, Lawrence Poree, Evoke Study Group, Dan Brounstein, Samuel Gilbert, Gerrit E. Gmel, Robert Gorman, Ian Gould, Erin Hanson, Dean M. Karantonis, Abeer Khurram, Angela Leitner, Dave Mugan, Milan Obradovic, Zhonghua Ouyang, John Parker, Peter Single, and Nicole Soliday. Durability of Clinical and Quality-of-Life Outcomes of Closed-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation for Chronic Back and Leg Pain: A Secondary Analysis of the Evoke Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Neurology. 2022;79(3):251. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jamaneurol.2021.4998.","journal-title":"JAMA Neurology"},{"issue":"3699","key":"149_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1126\/science.150.3699.971","volume":"150","author":"Ronald Melzack","year":"1965","unstructured":"Melzack Ronald, Wall Patrick D. Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory: A Gate Control System Modulates Sensory Input from the Skin before It Evokes Pain Perception and Response. Science. 1965;150(3699):971\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.150.3699.971.","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"6","key":"149_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.07.039","volume":"96","author":"Alan Mendez","year":"2021","unstructured":"Mendez Alan, Islam Riazul, Latypov Timur, Basa Prathima, Joseph Ogeneitsega J, Knudsen Bruce, Siddiqui Ahad M, Summer Priska, Staehnke Luke J, Grahn Peter J, Lachman Nirusha, Windebank Anthony J, Lavrov Igor A. Segment-Specific Orientation of the Dorsal and Ventral Roots for Precise Therapeutic Targeting of Human Spinal Cord. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2021;96(6):1426\u201337. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.mayocp.2020.07.039.","journal-title":"Mayo Clinic Proceedings"},{"key":"149_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Moffitt, Michael A., Dongchul C. Lee, Kerry Bradley. 2009. \u201cSpinal Cord Stimulation: Engineering Approaches to Clinical and Physiological Challenges.\u201d In: Greenbaum, E., Zhou, D. (eds) Implantable Neural Prostheses 1. Biological and Medical Physics, Biomedical Engineering. Springer, New York, NY. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-0-387-77261-5_5.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-77261-5_5"},{"issue":"4","key":"149_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"046017","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ab9db8","volume":"17","author":"Evan N Nicolai","year":"2020","unstructured":"Nicolai Evan N, Settell Megan L, Knudsen Bruce E, McConico Andrea L, Gosink Brian A, Trevathan James K, Baumgart Ian W, Ross Erika K, Pelot Nicole A, Grill Warren M, Gustafson Kenneth J, Shoffstall Andrew J, Williams Justin C, Ludwig Kip A. Sources of Off-Target Effects of Vagus Nerve Stimulation Using the Helical Clinical Lead in Domestic Pigs. Journal of Neural Engineering. 2020;17(4):046017. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/1741-2552\/ab9db8.","journal-title":"Journal of Neural Engineering"},{"issue":"2","key":"149_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0228306","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228306","volume":"15","author":"Peter A Pahapill","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pahapill Peter A, Chen Guangyu, Arocho-Quinones Elsa V, Nencka Andrew S, Li Shi-Jiang. \u201cFunctional Connectivity and Structural Analysis of Trial Spinal Cord Stimulation Responders in Failed Back Surgery Syndrome\u201d edited by N. Bergsland PLOS ONE. 2020;15(2):e0228306. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0228306.","journal-title":"Bergsland. PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"3","key":"149_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pain.2011.11.023","volume":"153","author":"John L Parker","year":"2012","unstructured":"Parker John L, Karantonis Dean M, Single Peter S, Obradovic Milan, Cousins Michael J. Compound Action Potentials Recorded in the Human Spinal Cord during Neurostimulation for Pain Relief. Pain. 2012;153(3):593\u2013601. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pain.2011.11.023.","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"149_CR32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Parker, John L., Dean M. Karantonis, Peter S. Single, Milan Obradovic, James Laird, Robert B. Gorman, Leigh A. Ladd, and Michael J. Cousins. 2013. \u201cElectrically Evoked Compound Action Potentials Recorded From the Sheep Spinal Cord.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface 16(4):295\u2013303. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ner.12053.","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12053"},{"key":"149_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Parker, John L., Milan Obradovic, Nastaran Hesam Shariati, Robert B. Gorman, Dean M. Karantonis, Peter S. Single, James Laird-Wah, Mark Bickerstaff, and Michael J. Cousins. 2020. \u201cEvoked Compound Action Potentials Reveal Spinal Cord Dorsal Column Neuroanatomy.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface 23(1):82\u201395. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ner.12968.","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12968"},{"issue":"14","key":"149_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601479","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.601479","volume":"4","author":"NA Pelot","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pelot NA, Goldhagen GB, Cariello JE, Musselman ED, Clissold KA, Ezzell JA, Grill WM. Quantified Morphology of the Cervical and Subdiaphragmatic Vagus Nerves of Human, Pig, and Rat. Front Neurosci. 2020;4(14):601479. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnins.2020.601479.","journal-title":"Front Neurosci."},{"issue":"4","key":"149_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1109\/10.376126","volume":"42","author":"R Plonsey","year":"1995","unstructured":"Plonsey R, Barr RC. Electric Field Stimulation of Excitable Tissue. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 1995;42(4):329\u201336. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/10.376126.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering"},{"key":"149_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Pope, Jason E., Timothy R. Deer, Steven Falowski, David Provenzano, Michael Hanes, Salim M. Hayek, Jacob Amrani, Jonathan Carlson, Ioannis Skaribas, Kris Parchuri, W. Porter McRoberts, Robert Bolash, Nameer Haider, Maged Hamza, Kasra Amirdelfan, Sean Graham, Corey Hunter, Eric Lee, Sean Li, Michael Yang, Lucas Campos, Shrif Costandi, Robert Levy, and Nagy Mekhail. 2017. \u201cMulticenter Retrospective Study of Neurostimulation With Exit of Therapy by Explant.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface 20(6):543\u201352. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ner.12634.","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12634"},{"key":"149_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/s0306-4522(98)00330-3","volume":"89","author":"F Rattay","year":"1999","unstructured":"Rattay F. The basic mechanism for the electrical stimulation of the nervous system. Neuroscience. 1999;89:335\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/s0306-4522(98)00330-3.","journal-title":"Neuroscience."},{"key":"149_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Rattay F, Minassian K, Dimitrijevic MR. Epidural electrical stimulation of posterior structures of the human lumbosacral cord: 2. quantitative analysis by computer modeling. Spinal Cord. 2000 38:473-89. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/sj.sc.3101039","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.sc.3101039"},{"issue":"3","key":"149_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2021.09.005","volume":"23","author":"ER Rogers","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rogers ER, Zander HJ, Lempka SF. Neural Recruitment During Conventional, Burst, and 10-kHz Spinal Cord Stimulation for Pain. The Journal of Pain. 2022;23(3):434\u201349. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jpain.2021.09.005. PMID: 34583022; PMCID: PMC8925309.","journal-title":"The Journal of Pain."},{"key":"149_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-021-01663-5","volume":"28","author":"A Rowald","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rowald A, Komi S, Demesmaeker R, et al. Activity-dependent spinal cord neuromodulation rapidly restores trunk and leg motor functions after complete paralysis. Nat Med. 2022;28:260\u201371. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41591-021-01663-5.","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"149_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E485","DOI":"10.1093\/neuros\/nyaa003","volume":"87","author":"Marc Russo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Russo Marc, Brooker Charles, Cousins Michael J, Taylor Nathan, Boesel Tillman, Sullivan Richard, Holford Lewis, Hanson Erin, Gmel Gerrit Eduard, Shariati NastaranHesam, Poree Lawrence, Parker John. Sustained Long-Term Outcomes With Closed-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation: 12-Month Results of the Prospective, Multicenter, Open-Label Avalon Study. Neurosurgery. 2020;87(4):E485-95. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/neuros\/nyaa003.","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"149_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Russo, Marc, Michael J. Cousins, Charles Brooker, Nathan Taylor, Tillman Boesel, Richard Sullivan, Lawrence Poree, Nastaran Hesam Shariati, Erin Hanson, and John Parker. 2018. \u201cEffective Relief of Pain and Associated Symptoms With Closed-Loop Spinal Cord Stimulation System: Preliminary Results of the Avalon Study.\u201d Neuromodulation: Technology at the Neural Interface 21(1):38\u201347. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ner.12684.","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12684"},{"issue":"4","key":"149_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-196707000-00025","volume":"46","author":"CN Shealy","year":"1967","unstructured":"Shealy CN, Mortimer JT, Reswick JB. Electrical Inhibition of Pain by Stimulation of the Dorsal Columns: Preliminary Clinical Report. Anesthesia and Analgesia. 1967;46(4):489\u201391.","journal-title":"Anesthesia and Analgesia"},{"issue":"10","key":"149_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2078","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2018.2870169","volume":"26","author":"Peter Single","year":"2018","unstructured":"Single Peter, Scott Jonathan. Cause of Pulse Artefacts Inherent to the Electrodes of Neuromodulation Implants. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering. 2018;26(10):2078\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/TNSRE.2018.2870169.","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering"},{"key":"149_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1007\/s00701-015-2425-5","volume":"157","author":"B Solmaz","year":"2015","unstructured":"Solmaz B, Tatarl\u0131 N, Ceylan D, Kele\u015f E, \u00c7avdar S. Intradural communication between dorsal rootlets of spinal nerves: their clinical significance. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2015;157:1069\u201376.","journal-title":"Acta Neurochir (Wien)."},{"issue":"4","key":"149_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.3109\/10520297509117068","volume":"50","author":"NC Stickland","year":"1975","unstructured":"Stickland NC. A detailed analysis of the effects of various fixatives on animal tissue with particular reference to muscle tissue. Stain Technol. 1975;50(4):255\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3109\/10520297509117068. PMID: 810925.","journal-title":"Stain Technol."},{"issue":"7","key":"149_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1109\/10.237693","volume":"40","author":"JJ Struijk","year":"1993","unstructured":"Struijk JJ, Holsheimer J, Boom HB. Excitation of dorsal root fibers in spinal cord stimulation: a theoretical study. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1993;40(7):632\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/10.237693. PMID: 8244424.","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed Eng."},{"issue":"1","key":"149_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s42234-023-00106-5","volume":"9","author":"N Verma","year":"2023","unstructured":"Verma N, Romanauski B, Lam D, Lujan L, Blanz S, Ludwig K, Lempka S, Shoffstall A, Knudson B, Nishiyama Y, Hao J, Park HJ, Ross E, Lavrov I, Zhang M. Characterization and applications of evoked responses during epidural electrical stimulation. Bioelectron Med. 2023;9(1):5. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s42234-023-00106-5. PMID: 36855060; PMCID: PMC9976490.","journal-title":"Bioelectron Med."},{"key":"149_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.09.049","volume":"199","author":"F Yang","year":"2011","unstructured":"Yang F, Carteret AF, Wacnik PW, Chung CY, Xing L, Dong X, Meyer RA, Raja SN, Guan Y. Bipolar Spinal Cord Stimulation Attenuates Mechanical Hypersensitivity at an Intensity That Activates a Small Portion of A-Fiber Afferents in Spinal Nerve-Injured Rats. Neuroscience. 2011;199:470\u201380. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.09.049.","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"149_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2014.04.039","volume":"1569","author":"Tianhe C Zhang","year":"2014","unstructured":"Zhang TC, Janik JJ, Grill WM. Mechanisms and models of spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Brain Res. 2014;1569:19\u201331. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.brainres.2014.04.039.","journal-title":"Brain Research"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1186\/s42234-024-00152-7","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,7]],"date-time":"2024-08-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722988800000}}],"container-title":["Bioelectronic Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s42234-024-00149-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s42234-024-00149-2\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s42234-024-00149-2.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,7]],"date-time":"2024-08-07T02:31:03Z","timestamp":1722997863000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioelecmed.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s42234-024-00149-2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12]]}},"alternative-id":["149"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s42234-024-00149-2","relation":{},"ISSN":["2332-8886"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2332-8886","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,17]]},"assertion":[{"value":"1 March 2024","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"28 May 2024","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"17 July 2024","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"5 August 2024","order":4,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Update","order":5,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Supplemental figure citations in the main body were changed to Supplementary Figure.","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"7 August 2024","order":7,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":8,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"A Correction to this paper has been published:","order":9,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s42234-024-00152-7","URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s42234-024-00152-7","order":10,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"All study procedures were conducted with the approval of the Mayo Clinic Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Guidelines for Animal Research and by the University of Wisconsin \u2013 Madison\u2019s Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"KAL is a co-founder of Neuronoff, Inc., and NeuraWorx with equity stock interests. KAL is a scientific board member and has stock interests in NeuroOne Medical Inc. KAL is a paid member of the scientific advisory board of Abbott, Cala Health, Blackfynn, Battelle, Neuronoff Inc., and Presidio Medical, and a paid consultant for the Alfred Mann Foundation, Neuronoff Inc., and CVRx. SFL receives research support from Abbott Neuromodulation, Medtronic plc, Neuromodulation Specialists LLC, and Presidio Medical Inc. SFL is a shareholder in CereGate, Hologram Consultants LLC, Neuronoff, Inc., and Presidio Medical Inc. SFL is a member of the scientific advisory boards for Abbott Neuromodulation, CereGate, and Presidio Medical Inc. KAL and SFL are paid members of the scientific advisory board of Abbott Neuromodulation. AJS is a consultant to and a co-founder of Neuronoff Inc. AJS receives research support from Abbott Neuromodulation. DVL, NV, HP, and MZ are employees or contractors of Abbott Neuromodulation. NV is a part\u2010time employee of BioCircuit Technologies.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"17"}}