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Inform."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>\n                      infects one-fourth of the global population, and current challenges such as latent infections, multidrug-resistant strains, and the limited efficacy of the BCG vaccine emphasize the urgent need for next-generation vaccines. This study aimed to introduce novel vaccine candidates, immunoreactive epitopes, and a novel multi-epitope vaccine (MEV).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      New immunogenic targets were identified based on different characteristics, including subcellular localization, antigenicity, non-similarity to the host proteome, sequence conservation, prevalence, and B-cell and T-cell epitopes. In the next step, IFN-\u03b3 releasing immunoreactive epitopes with a high similarity to TCR-interacting epitopes were identified. The MEV was generated using shortlisted epitopes and the C-terminal fragment of\n                      <jats:italic>Clostridium perfringens<\/jats:italic>\n                      enterotoxin (CPE). Finally, the interactions of MEV epitopes with human MHC I and MHC II alleles were investigated.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      In the first step, a total of seven proteins with desired immunogenic properties were introduced as novel immunogenic targets. Comparison of surface-exposed proteins to 4718 immunoreactive linear B-cell epitopes of\n                      <jats:italic>M. tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>\n                      resulted in identification of 719 non-redundant immunoreactive epitopes. Finally, seven immunoreactive, IFN-\u03b3 releasing epitopes with significant homology to TCR binding epitopes were employed to design a MEV. This MEV showed desirable structural and immunogenic properties. Moreover, it revealed promising interactions with human MHC I and MHC II alleles in molecular docking.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This study suggests PE\/PPE proteins and TCR-recognized immunoreactive peptides as promising vaccine components against tuberculosis. In addition, the designed MEV with the C-terminal fragment of CPE may represent a potential candidate for future development as a mucosal vaccine against\n                      <jats:italic>M. tuberculosis<\/jats:italic>\n                      .\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s44342-026-00075-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T12:57:00Z","timestamp":1783515420000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Design of a multi-epitope vaccine against Mycobacterium tuberculosis using reverse vaccinology and immunoreactive peptides"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"24","author":[{"given":"Narjes","family":"Noori Goodarzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sepideh","family":"Fereshteh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Behzad","family":"Shahbazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Niloofar","family":"Rezaie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mahshid","family":"Khazani Asforooshani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Farzad","family":"Badmasti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"75_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-018-0025-3","volume":"18","author":"JD Simmons","year":"2018","unstructured":"Simmons JD, et al. 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