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In this study, clinical and environmental<jats:italic>C. parapsilosis<\/jats:italic>isolates, and strains of the related species<jats:italic>C. orthopsilosis<\/jats:italic>and<jats:italic>C. metapsilosis<\/jats:italic>were assayed for their ability to induce macrophage cytotocixity and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-\u03b1, to produce pseudo-hyphae and to secrete hydrolytic enzymes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Environmental<jats:italic>C. parapsilosis<\/jats:italic>isolates caused a statistically significant (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>= 0.0002) higher cell damage compared with the clinical strains, while<jats:italic>C. orthopsilosis<\/jats:italic>and<jats:italic>C. metapsilosis<\/jats:italic>were less cytotoxic. On the other hand, clinical isolates induced a higher TNF-\u03b1 production compared with environmental strains (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>&lt; 0.0001). Whereas the amount of TNF-\u03b1 produced in response to<jats:italic>C. orthopsilosis<\/jats:italic>strains was similar to the obtained with<jats:italic>C. parapsilosis<\/jats:italic>environmental isolates, it was lower for<jats:italic>C. metapsilosis<\/jats:italic>strains. No correlation between pseudo-hyphae formation or proteolytic enzymes secretion and macrophage death was detected (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>&gt; 0.05). However, a positive correlation between pseudo-hyphae formation and TNF-\u03b1 secretion was observed (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>= 0.0119).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>We show that environmental<jats:italic>C. parapsilosis<\/jats:italic>strains are more resistant to phagocytic host defences than bloodstream isolates, being potentially more deleterious in the course of infection than strains from a clinical source. Thus, active environmental surveillance and application of strict cleaning procedures should be implemented in order to prevent cross-infection and hospital outbreaks.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-11-180","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,9]],"date-time":"2011-08-09T18:17:50Z","timestamp":1312913870000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Isolates from hospital environments are the most virulent of the Candida parapsilosiscomplex"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Raquel","family":"Sabino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Paula","family":"Sampaio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Catarina","family":"Carneiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Rosado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"C\u00e9lia","family":"Pais","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,8,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"1467_CR1","first-page":"341","volume-title":"Candida and Candidiasis","author":"GP Moran","year":"2002","unstructured":"Moran GP, Sullivan DJ, Coleman DC: Emergence of non Candida albicans Candida species as pathogens. 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