{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T12:43:50Z","timestamp":1775738630371,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Plant Biol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Glutamine Synthetase (GS, EC 6.3.1.2) is a central enzyme in nitrogen metabolism, and a key component of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and plant yield and thus it is extremely important to understand how it is regulated in plants. <jats:italic>Medicago truncatula<\/jats:italic> provides an excellent model system to study GS, as it contain a very simple GS gene family comprising only four expressed genes, <jats:italic>MtGS1a<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>MtGS1b<\/jats:italic> encoding cytosolic polypeptides, and <jats:italic>MtGS2a<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>MtGS2b<\/jats:italic> encoding plastid-located enzymes. To identify new regulatory mechanisms controlling GS activity, we performed a detailed expression analysis of the entire GS gene family of <jats:italic>M. truncatula<\/jats:italic> in the major organs of the plant, over a time course of nodule or seed development and during a diurnal cycle.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>Individual GS transcripts were quantified by qRT-PCR, and GS polypeptides and holoenzymes were evaluated by western blot and in-gel activity under native electrophoresis. These studies revealed that all four GS genes are differentially regulated in each organ of the plant, in a developmental manner, and identified new regulatory controls, which appear to be specific to certain metabolic contexts. Studies of the protein profiles showed that the GS polypeptides assemble into organ-specific protein complexes and suffer organ-specific post-translational modifications under defined physiological conditions. Our studies also reveal that GS expression and activity are modulated during a diurnal cycle. The biochemical properties of the four isoenzymes were determined and are discussed in relation to their function in the plant.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>\n          <jats:sec>\n            <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n            <jats:p>This work provides a comprehensive overview of GS expression and regulation in the model legume <jats:italic>M. truncatula<\/jats:italic>, contributing to a better understanding of the specific function of individual isoenzymes and to the identification of novel organ-specific post-translational mechanisms of GS regulation. We demonstrate that the GS proteins are modified and\/or integrated into protein-complexes that assemble into a specific composition in particular organs of the plant. Taken together, the results presented here open new avenues to explore the regulatory mechanisms controlling GS activity in plants, a subject of major importance due to the crucial importance of the enzyme for plant growth and productivity.<\/jats:p>\n          <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2229-13-137","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,21]],"date-time":"2013-09-21T19:02:37Z","timestamp":1379790157000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Novel aspects of glutamine synthetase (GS) regulation revealed by a detailed expression analysis of the entire GS gene family of Medicago truncatulaunder different physiological conditions"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ana R","family":"Seabra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Liliana S","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Helena G","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"1340_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444328608.ch1","volume":"42","author":"PJ Lea","year":"2010","unstructured":"Lea PJ, Miflin BJ: Nitrogen assimilation and its relevance to crop improvement. 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