{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T15:11:09Z","timestamp":1774883469012,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]],"date-time":"2022-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657065600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]],"date-time":"2022-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1657065600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["BMC Vet Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p><jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic> complex (MTC) that causes the chronic infectious disease- tuberculosis (TB), often presents with a complicated epidemiological pattern where the transmission chain may include humans, domestic animals and wildlife, including elephants. TB has been reported globally in both captive and wild elephants. The One Health approach might be the most effective way of understanding the shared MTC infection dynamics in captive and wild animals like Asian elephants. This systematic review accumulates evidence on occurrence, transmission pathways, and preventive measures of TB in elephants from a One Health perspective.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The prevalence of TB reported in elephant populations ranges from 0 to 23.33% and high prevalence\u2019s are reported for elephants that are in close proximity to infected humans. The risk of elephant to human infection transmission increased significantly with exposure duration and contact with infected elephants. Some studies described the plausible TB transmission to captive elephants from other animals (wild and domestic), suggesting inter- and intra-species transmission. The results of this systematic review based on 27 relevant published works, suggest three overarching interrelated transmission pathways for <jats:italic>M. tuberculosis<\/jats:italic> infections in Asian elephants- i) humans and elephants, ii) other animals (wild or domestic) and elephants and iii) unclear sources of infection.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec><jats:sec>\n                <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                <jats:p>The progress made with new TB diagnostic tools provides multiple methods to choose from. However, lack of harmonization of TB testing in elephants and their human contacts remains a challenge to prevent TB in those animals. Routine TB screening among elephants and caretakers by setting up an occupational health program for early diagnosis of infection through combined efforts of public health, veterinary medicine, and occupational health experts is suggested. This implies the need for a One Health approach to elephant TB control. This review reveals the need for more research on <jats:italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis<\/jats:italic> complex transmission pathways at the human-animal interface.<\/jats:p>\n              <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-022-03356-8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]],"date-time":"2022-07-06T05:02:43Z","timestamp":1657083763000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Understanding Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in elephants through a One Health approach: a systematic review"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2426-3190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajesh Man","family":"Rajbhandari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"de la Fuente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Dibesh","family":"Karmacharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sujala","family":"Mathema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Bijay","family":"Maharjan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sameer Mani","family":"Dixit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Nisha","family":"Shrestha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Queir\u00f3s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Gort\u00e1zar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Paulo C\u00e9lio","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"3356_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0402.980217","volume":"4","author":"K Michalak","year":"1998","unstructured":"Michalak K. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection as a zoonotic disease: transmission between humans and elephants. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998;4:283\u20137.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.20.1.1268","volume":"20","author":"R Montali","year":"2001","unstructured":"Montali R, Mikota S, Cheng L. Mycobacterium tuberculosis in zoo and wildlife species. Rev Sci Tech. 2001;20:291\u2013303.","journal-title":"Rev Sci Tech"},{"key":"3356_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2703.204729","volume":"27","author":"MA Miller","year":"2021","unstructured":"Miller MA, Kerr TJ, de Waal CR, Goosen WJ, Streicher EM, Hausler G, et al. Mycobacterium bovis infection in free-ranging African elephants. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021;27:3.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1638\/2019-0152","volume":"51","author":"S Suga","year":"2021","unstructured":"Suga S, Mukai Y, Ishikawa S, Yoshida S, Paudel S, Wada T. Intensive treatment of a captive bornean elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) infected with Mycobacterium caprae in Japan. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2021;51:1062\u20136.","journal-title":"J Zoo Wildl Med"},{"key":"3356_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.156.6.171","volume":"156","author":"SS Lewerin","year":"2005","unstructured":"Lewerin SS, Olsson SL, Eld K, R\u00f6ken B, Ghebremichael S, Koivula T, et al. Outbreak of mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among captive Asian elephants in a Swedish zoo. Vet Rec. 2005;156:171\u20135.","journal-title":"Vet Rec"},{"key":"3356_CR6","unstructured":"Susan K, Mikota DVM. A brief history of TB in elephants: Elephant Care International; 2020."},{"key":"3356_CR7","unstructured":"Basic facts about elephants. Global Sanctuary for Elephants. 2020. https:\/\/globalelephants.org\/the-basics\/. Accessed 18 Jan 2020."},{"issue":"9","key":"3356_CR8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3606","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msab127","volume":"38","author":"M Tollis","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tollis M, Ferris E, Campbell MS, Harris VK, Rupp SM, Harrison TM, et al. Elephant genomes reveal accelerated evolution in mechanisms underlying disease defenses. Mol Biol Evol. 2021;38(9):3606\u201320.","journal-title":"Mol Biol Evol"},{"key":"3356_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2303.161439","volume":"23","author":"BM Chandranaik","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chandranaik BM, Shivashankar BP, Umashankar KS, Nandini P, Giridhar P, Byregowda SM, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in free-roaming wild Asian elephant. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23:555\u20137.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e344","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12764","volume":"65","author":"LE Rosen","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rosen LE, Hanyire TG, Dawson J, Foggin CM, Michel AL, Huyvaert KP, et al. Tuberculosis serosurveillance and management practices of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier conservation area. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2018;65:e344\u201354.","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2013.12.008","volume":"94","author":"S Paudel","year":"2014","unstructured":"Paudel S, Mikota SK, Nakajima C, Gairhe KP, Maharjan B, Thapa J, et al. Molecular characterization of mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from elephants of Nepal. Tuberculosis. 2014;94:287\u201392.","journal-title":"Tuberculosis."},{"key":"3356_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1612.100862","volume":"16","author":"T Angkawanish","year":"2010","unstructured":"Angkawanish T, Wajjwalku W, Sirimalaisuwan A, Sittidet M, Kaewsakhorn T, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of domesticated Asian elephants, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16:1949\u201351.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR13","unstructured":"Elephants in Captivity. https:\/\/www.elephantvoices.org\/elephants-in-captivity-7.html. Accessed 6 May 2022."},{"key":"3356_CR14","unstructured":"Iyer AK. Veterinary science in India, ancient and modern with special reference to tuberculosis: Ag Lvstk India; 1937."},{"key":"3356_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1002\/1098-2361(2000)19:5<393::AID-ZOO9>3.0.CO;2-T","volume":"19","author":"SK Mikota","year":"2000","unstructured":"Mikota SK, Larsen RS, Montali RJ. Tuberculosis in elephants in North America. Zoo Biol. 2000;19:393\u2013403.","journal-title":"Zoo Biol"},{"key":"3356_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2303.161741","volume":"23","author":"A Zachariah","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zachariah A, Pandiyan J, Madhavilatha GK, Mundayoor S, Chandramohan B, Sajesh PK, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis in wild Asian elephants, southern India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23:504.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00018","volume":"6","author":"MA Miller","year":"2019","unstructured":"Miller MA, Buss P, Roos EO, Hausler G, Dippenaar A, Mitchell E, et al. Fatal tuberculosis in a free-ranging African elephant and one health implications of human pathogens in wildlife. Front Vet Sci. 2019;6:18.","journal-title":"Front Vet Sci"},{"key":"3356_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268813000022","volume":"141","author":"V Obanda","year":"2013","unstructured":"Obanda V, Poghon J, Yongo M, Mulei I, Ngotho M, Waititu K, et al. First reported case of fatal tuberculosis in a wild African elephant with past human\u2013wildlife contact. Epidemiol Infect. 2013;141:1476\u201380.","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"3356_CR19","first-page":"28","volume":"41","author":"B Perera","year":"2014","unstructured":"Perera B, Salgadu M, Gunawardena G, Smith N, Jinadasa H. First confirmed case of fatal tuberculosis in a wild Sri Lankan elephant. Gajah. 2014;41:28\u201331.","journal-title":"Gajah."},{"key":"3356_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1703.101668","volume":"17","author":"R Murphree","year":"2011","unstructured":"Murphree R, Warkentin JV, Dunn JR, Schaffner W, Jones TF. Elephant-to-human transmission of tuberculosis, 2009. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:366\u201371.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6452a2","volume":"64","author":"A Zlot","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zlot A, Vines J, Nystrom L, Lane L, Behm H, Denny J, et al. Diagnosis of tuberculosis in three zoo elephants and a human contact\u2014Oregon, 2013. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;64:1398\u2013402.","journal-title":"Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"3356_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2011.03.026","volume":"92","author":"SDC Parsons","year":"2012","unstructured":"Parsons SDC, Warren RM, Ottenhoff THM, Gey van Pittius NC, van Helden PD. Detection of mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in dogs in a high-risk setting. Res Vet Sci. 2012;92:414\u20139.","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci"},{"key":"3356_CR23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2010.05.005","volume":"188","author":"G Ameni","year":"2011","unstructured":"Ameni G, Vordermeier M, Firdessa R, Aseffa A, Hewinson G, Gordon SV, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in grazing cattle in Central Ethiopia. Vet J. 2011;188:359\u201361.","journal-title":"Vet J"},{"key":"3356_CR24","first-page":"555683","volume":"6","author":"AA Che","year":"2018","unstructured":"Che AA. Wildlife tuberculosis in Southeast Asia: a less known potential hot-spots and issues in disease surveillance and management. J Dairy Vet Sci. 2018;6:555683.","journal-title":"J Dairy Vet Sci"},{"key":"3356_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1090.2011.00141.x","volume":"45","author":"A L\u00e9cu","year":"2011","unstructured":"L\u00e9cu A, Ball R. Mycobacterial infections in zoo animals: relevance, diagnosis and management. Int Zoo Yearbook. 2011;45:183\u2013202.","journal-title":"Int Zoo Yearbook"},{"key":"3356_CR26","first-page":"1075","volume":"14","author":"PA LoBue","year":"2010","unstructured":"LoBue PA, Enarson DA, Thoen CO. Tuberculosis in humans and animals: an overview. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2010;14:1075\u20138.","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR27","volume-title":"Livestock disease eradication: evaluation of the cooperative state-federal bovine tuberculosis eradication program","author":"National Research Council","year":"1994","unstructured":"National Research Council. Livestock disease eradication: evaluation of the cooperative state-federal bovine tuberculosis eradication program. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 1994."},{"key":"3356_CR28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2015.07.009","volume":"167","author":"J Bezos","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bezos J, Casal C, D\u00edez-Delgado I, Romero B, Liandris E, \u00c1lvarez J, et al. Goats challenged with different members of the mycobacterium tuberculosis complex display different clinical pictures. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2015;167:185\u20139.","journal-title":"Vet Immunol Immunopathol"},{"key":"3356_CR29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e76891","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0076891","volume":"8","author":"G Ameni","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ameni G, Tadesse K, Hailu E, Deresse Y, Medhin G, Aseffa A, et al. Transmission of mycobacterium tuberculosis between farmers and cattle in Central Ethiopia. PLoS One. 2013;8:e76891.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"3356_CR30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14647","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-15278-9","volume":"7","author":"G Ghielmetti","year":"2017","unstructured":"Ghielmetti G, Coscolla M, Ruetten M, Friedel U, Loiseau C, Feldmann J, et al. Tuberculosis in Swiss captive Asian elephants: microevolution of mycobacterium tuberculosis characterized by multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis and whole-genome sequencing. Sci Rep. 2017;7:14647.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"3356_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0811.020302","volume":"8","author":"P Oh","year":"2002","unstructured":"Oh P, Granich R, Scott J, Sun B, Joseph M, Stringfield C, et al. Human exposure following mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of multiple animal species in a metropolitan zoo. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:1290.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR32","first-page":"757","volume-title":"Proceedings. International Symposia on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics","author":"D Abraham","year":"2009","unstructured":"Abraham D. Seropositivity to human\/bovine strains of tuberculosis among captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in southern India: conservation and zoonotic implications. In:  Proceedings. International Symposia on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics; 2009. p. 757."},{"key":"3356_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e49548","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0049548","volume":"7","author":"S Verma-Kumar","year":"2012","unstructured":"Verma-Kumar S, Abraham D, Dendukuri N, Cheeran JV, Sukumar R, Balaji KN. Serodiagnosis of tuberculosis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in southern India: a latent class analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7:e49548.","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"3356_CR34","unstructured":"Yakubu Y. Prevalence and public health risk of tuberculosis and nontuberculous mycobacteria in captive asian elephants (Elephas maximus Linnaeus) in peninsular Malaysia: Universiti Putra Malaysia; 2015."},{"key":"3356_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1278","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.21-0113","volume":"83","author":"J Thapa","year":"2021","unstructured":"Thapa J, Mikota SK, Gairhe KP, Paudel S, Singh DK, Dhakal IP, et al. Tuberculosis seroprevalence and comparison of hematology and biochemistry parameters between seropositive and seronegative captive Asian elephants of Nepal. J Vet Med Sci. 2021;83:1278\u201383. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1292\/jvms.21-0113.","journal-title":"J Vet Med Sci"},{"key":"3356_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268813000265","volume":"141","author":"BL Ong","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ong BL, Ngeow YF, Razak MA, Yakubu Y, Zakaria Z, Mutalib AR, et al. Tuberculosis in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in peninsular Malaysia. Epidemiol Infect. 2013;141:1481\u20137.","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"3356_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2013.772690","volume":"33","author":"M Feldman","year":"2013","unstructured":"Feldman M, Isaza R, Prins C, Hernandez J. Point prevalence and incidence of mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in captive elephants in the United States of America. Vet Q. 2013;33:25\u20139.","journal-title":"Vet Q"},{"key":"3356_CR38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344-018-1229-3","volume":"64","author":"S Paudel","year":"2018","unstructured":"Paudel S, Mikota SK, Thapa J, Lyashchenko KP, Gairhe KP, Dhakal IP, et al. Serodiagnosis of elephant tuberculosis: a useful tool for early identification of infected elephants at the captive-wild interface. Eur J Wildl Res. 2018;64:70.","journal-title":"Eur J Wildl Res"},{"key":"3356_CR39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344-014-0890-4","volume":"61","author":"SK Mikota","year":"2015","unstructured":"Mikota SK, Gairhe K, Giri K, Hamilton K, Miller M, Paudel S, et al. Tuberculosis surveillance of elephants (Elephas maximus) in Nepal at the captive-wild interface. Eur J Wildl Res. 2015;61:221\u20139.","journal-title":"Eur J Wildl Res"},{"key":"3356_CR40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2016.01.008","volume":"125","author":"Y Yakubu","year":"2016","unstructured":"Yakubu Y, Ong BL, Zakaria Z, Hassan L, Mutalib AR, Ngeow YF, et al. Evidence and potential risk factors of tuberculosis among captive Asian elephants and wildlife staff in peninsular Malaysia. Prev Vet Med. 2016;125:147\u201353.","journal-title":"Prev Vet Med"},{"key":"3356_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2016.12.008","volume":"112","author":"RJ Magnuson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Magnuson RJ, Linke LM, Isaza R, Salman MD. Rapid screening for mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in clinical elephant trunk wash samples. Res Vet Sci. 2017;112:52\u20138.","journal-title":"Res Vet Sci"},{"key":"3356_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1638\/1042-7260(2000)031[0291:EOAMAE]2.0.CO;2","volume":"31","author":"RS Larsen","year":"2000","unstructured":"Larsen RS, Salman MD, Mikota SK, Isaza R, Montali RJ, Triantis J. Evaluation of a multiple-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in captive elephants. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2000;31:291\u2013302.","journal-title":"J Zoo Wildl Med"},{"key":"3356_CR43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268814002180","volume":"143","author":"J Lassausaie","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lassausaie J, Bret A, Bouapao X, Chanthavong V, Castonguay-Vanier J, Quet F, et al. Tuberculosis in Laos, who is at risk: the mahouts or their elephants? Epidemiol Infect. 2015;143:922\u201331.","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"3356_CR44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1017\/S095026881300068X","volume":"141","author":"N Stephens","year":"2013","unstructured":"Stephens N, Vogelnest L, Lowbridge C, Christensen A, Marks GB, Sintchenko V, et al. Transmission of mycobacterium tuberculosis from an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) to a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and humans in an Australian zoo. Epidemiol Infect. 2013;141:1488\u201397.","journal-title":"Epidemiol Infect"},{"key":"3356_CR45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00038-09","volume":"16","author":"R Greenwald","year":"2009","unstructured":"Greenwald R, Lyashchenko O, Esfandiari J, Miller M, Mikota S, Olsen JH, et al. Highly accurate antibody assays for early and rapid detection of tuberculosis in African and Asian elephants. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2009;16:605\u201312.","journal-title":"Clin Vaccine Immunol"},{"key":"3356_CR46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/8812898","volume":"2021","author":"AR Allen","year":"2021","unstructured":"Allen AR, Ford T, Skuce RA. Does mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis survival in the environment confound bovine tuberculosis control and eradication? A literature review. Vet Med Int. 2021;2021:1\u201319.","journal-title":"Vet Med Int"},{"key":"3356_CR47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985814568357","volume":"52","author":"JN Maslow","year":"2015","unstructured":"Maslow JN, Mikota SK. Tuberculosis in elephants\u2014a reemergent disease: diagnostic dilemmas, the natural history of infection, and new immunological tools. Vet Pathol. 2015;52:437\u201340.","journal-title":"Vet Pathol"},{"key":"3356_CR48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.5686\/jjzwm.21.65","volume":"21","author":"S Paudel","year":"2016","unstructured":"Paudel S, Tsubota T. Tuberculosis in elephants: a zoonotic disease at the human-elephant interface. Jpn J Zoo Wildl Med. 2016;21:65\u20139.","journal-title":"Jpn J Zoo Wildl Med"},{"key":"3356_CR49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14551","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71099-3","volume":"10","author":"S Songthammanuphap","year":"2020","unstructured":"Songthammanuphap S, Puthong S, Pongma C, Buakeaw A, Prammananan T, Warit S, et al. Detection of mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) using an interferon gamma release assay in a captive elephant herd. Sci Rep. 2020;10:14551.","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"3356_CR50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2303.160726","volume":"23","author":"G Simpson","year":"2017","unstructured":"Simpson G, Zimmerman R, Shashkina E, Chen L, Richard M, Bradford CM, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among Asian elephants in captivity. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23:513\u20136.","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2011.02.007","volume":"91","author":"SK Mikota","year":"2011","unstructured":"Mikota SK, Maslow JN. Tuberculosis at the human-animal interface: an emerging disease of elephants. Tuberculosis (Edinb). 2011;91:208\u201311.","journal-title":"Tuberculosis (Edinb)"},{"key":"3356_CR52","volume-title":"Epidemiology of tuberculosis in elephants, 1994\u20132011","author":"K Orloski","year":"2011","unstructured":"Orloski K. Epidemiology of tuberculosis in elephants, 1994\u20132011. USA: USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services; 2011."},{"key":"3356_CR53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.889943","volume":"20","author":"O Gocmen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Gocmen O. Performance of QuantiFERON-TB gold in-tube test and tuberculin skin test for diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in BCG vaccinated health care workers. Med Sci Monit. 2014;20:521\u20139.","journal-title":"Med Sci Monit"},{"key":"3356_CR54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.4103\/2229-5178.93479","volume":"3","author":"S Nayak","year":"2012","unstructured":"Nayak S, Acharjya B. Mantoux test and its interpretation. Indian Dermatol Online J. 2012;3:2.","journal-title":"Indian Dermatol Online J"},{"key":"3356_CR55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00016","volume":"8","author":"M Herrera Diaz","year":"2020","unstructured":"Herrera Diaz M, Haworth-Brockman M, Keynan Y. Review of evidence for using chest X-rays for active tuberculosis screening in long-term care in Canada. Front Public Health. 2020;8:16.","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"3356_CR56","volume-title":"Rapid communication on updated guidance on the management of tuberculosis in children and adolescents","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2021","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Rapid communication on updated guidance on the management of tuberculosis in children and adolescents. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021."},{"key":"3356_CR57","volume-title":"Report of the meeting to review the paediatric antituberculosis drug optimization priority list","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2021","unstructured":"World Health Organization. Report of the meeting to review the paediatric antituberculosis drug optimization priority list. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021."},{"key":"3356_CR58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2012.07.005","volume":"36","author":"M Miller","year":"2013","unstructured":"Miller M, Olea-Popelka F. One health in the shrinking world: experiences with tuberculosis at the human\u2013livestock\u2013wildlife interface. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;36:263\u20138.","journal-title":"Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1093\/clind\/15.4.598","volume":"15","author":"JR Dalovisio","year":"1992","unstructured":"Dalovisio JR, Stetter M, Mikota-Wells S. Rhinoceros\u2019 rhinorrhea: cause of an outbreak of infection due to airborne Mycobacterium bovis in zookeepers. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15:598\u2013600.","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"3356_CR60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1111\/izy.12221","volume":"53","author":"K Backues","year":"2019","unstructured":"Backues K, Wiedner E. Recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment and management of tuberculosis, mycobacterium tuberculosis, in elephants in human care. Int Zoo Yearbook. 2019;53:116\u201327.","journal-title":"Int Zoo Yearbook"},{"key":"3356_CR61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00807-10","volume":"49","author":"MK Kay","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kay MK, Linke L, Triantis J, Salman MD, Larsen RS. Evaluation of DNA extraction techniques for detecting mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms in Asian elephant trunk wash samples. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:618\u201323.","journal-title":"J Clin Microbiol"},{"key":"3356_CR62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02438-9","volume":"16","author":"WJ Goosen","year":"2020","unstructured":"Goosen WJ, Kerr TJ, Kleynhans L, Buss P, Cooper D, Warren RM, et al. The VetMAX\u2122 M. tuberculosis complex PCR kit detects MTBC DNA in antemortem and postmortem samples from white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). BMC Vet Res. 2020;16:220.","journal-title":"BMC Vet Res"},{"key":"3356_CR63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mikota SK. Tuberculosis in elephants. In: Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Elsevier; 2008. p. 355\u201364.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-141604047-7.50046-4"},{"key":"3356_CR64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1000097","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000097","volume":"6","author":"D Moher","year":"2009","unstructured":"Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group TP. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6:e1000097.","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"3356_CR65","unstructured":"Corporation for Digital Scholarship. Zotero. Vienna; 2019."}],"container-title":["BMC Veterinary Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12917-022-03356-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1186\/s12917-022-03356-8\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1186\/s12917-022-03356-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]],"date-time":"2022-07-06T06:03:52Z","timestamp":1657087432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s12917-022-03356-8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["3356"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12917-022-03356-8","relation":{},"ISSN":["1746-6148"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1746-6148","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,6]]},"assertion":[{"value":"17 August 2020","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"21 June 2022","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"6 July 2022","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"Not applicable.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"262"}}