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Such an ecological trade-off may be advantageous to both the microbe and the host, as it allows protozoa and helminths to maintain their genetic features while providing the host, particularly mammals, with long-standing protection against reinfection by the same microbe. In\n                    <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                    infection, CI is the mechanism whereby parasites remain at low-level infection in the host, which develops a strong immune reaction that protects against reinfection. Mechanistically, several CD4\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    T cell populations seem to be involved in such fine immune responses. While immunity against\n                    <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Taenia<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Schistosoma<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic>Echinococcus<\/jats:italic>\n                    is well known, the mechanisms of CI involving these pathogens have been poorly studied. Finally, the phenomenon of CI should be carefully assessed in the design of novel vaccine preparations.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Graphical Abstract<\/jats:bold>\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-07188-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]],"date-time":"2025-12-08T14:06:50Z","timestamp":1765202810000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Concomitant immunity in persistent Leishmania infections: could it represent an evolutionary balance and a vaccine target?"],"prefix":"10.1186","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Francesca","family":"Divenuto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Simona","family":"Gigliotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Grazia","family":"Pavia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Vitale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Sofia","family":"Cortes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Carla","family":"Maia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Nadia","family":"Marascio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Quirino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Matera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"7188_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mucimm.2023.08.004","volume":"16","author":"AP Meli","year":"2023","unstructured":"Meli AP, Russell GA, Swaminathan S, Weichselbaum L, MacMahon CA, Pernet E, et al. 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