{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T09:27:03Z","timestamp":1791019623765,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,7]],"date-time":"2023-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675728000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":5570,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"name":"Rheumatic Disease Research Core Center"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007271","name":"University of Tennessee Health Science Center","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007271","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AI-05466501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI-05466501"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"NIH","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["AI40198-06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI40198-06"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000738","name":"Veterans Affairs","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000738","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014055","name":"U.S. Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["W81XWH-05-1-0227"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH-05-1-0227"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014055","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,2,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The immunomodulatory properties of peptidoglycan (PGN), a constituent of the bacterial cell wall, have been studied extensively but with contrasting results. Recent studies have demonstrated that the TLR2-mediated inflammatory responses elicited by Gram-positive PGN preparations are in fact a result of contaminating lipoproteins and lipoteichoic acid that can be removed only through sophisticated extraction procedures. Here, we report that commercial preparations of Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes PGN are contaminated with bacterial superantigens (SAg). The T cell-derived cytokines IL-17A and IL-17F were induced by PGN preparations but not by TLR agonists or nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain-like receptor agonists in human PBMC. IL-17 induction by PGN preparations was sensitive to protease digestion and required TCR signaling. Bacterial SAg could be detected by immunoblot in the PGN preparations, and purified recombinant SAg were powerful inducers of IL-17. Finally, the PGN preparations stimulated proliferation and expansion of T cells bearing specific TCR V\u03b2 elements. Our results suggest that a large body of literature that relied on commercial PGN preparations to study inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis, where IL-17 also plays an important role, should be interpreted with caution and possibly revisited. Future studies aimed at characterizing the activities of PGN should use PGN preparations of proven purity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0807588","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,11,9]],"date-time":"2007-11-09T01:34:32Z","timestamp":1194572072000},"page":"409-418","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Commercial peptidoglycan preparations are contaminated with superantigen-like activity that stimulates IL-17 production"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"83","author":[{"given":"Hanfen","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammed M","family":"Nooh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"},{"name":"The VA Medical Center , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Malak","family":"Kotb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"},{"name":"The VA Medical Center , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"},{"name":"The Mid South Center for Biodefense and Security , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Re","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center , Memphis, Tennessee , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023033101042949800_","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1391","article-title":"Toll-like receptor signaling","volume":"4","author":"Akira","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. 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