{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T04:41:32Z","timestamp":1777869692811,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"Society of Exploration Geophysicists","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Very few researchers have developed numerical models of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) that include realistic descriptions of both the antennas and the subsurface. This is essential to be able to accurately predict responses from near-surface, near-field targets. This paper presents detailed three-dimensional (3D) finite-difference time-domain models of two commercial GPR antennas \u2014 a Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. (GSSI) 1.5-GHz antenna and a MAL\u00c5 Geoscience 1.2-GHz antenna \u2014 developed using simple analyses of the geometries and the main components of the antennas. Values for unknown parameters in the antenna models (due to commercial sensitivity) were estimated by using Taguchi's optimization method, resulting in a good match between the real and modeled crosstalk responses in free space. Validation using a series of oil-in-water emulsions to simulate the electrical properties of real materials demonstrated that it was essential to accurately model the permittivity and dispersive conductivity. When accurate descriptions of the emulsions were combined with the antenna models, the simulated responses showed very good agreement with real data. This provides confidence for use of the antenna models in more advanced studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1190\/1.3548506","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,17]],"date-time":"2011-03-17T18:09:04Z","timestamp":1300385344000},"page":"G37-G47","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":129,"title":["Creating finite-difference time-domain models of commercial ground-penetrating radar antennas using Taguchi's optimization method"],"prefix":"10.1190","volume":"76","author":[{"given":"Craig","family":"Warren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Edinburgh, School of Engineering, Institute for Infrastructure and Environment 1 , Edinburgh, U.K. Email: Craig.Warren@ed.ac.uk ; A.Giannopoulos@ed.ac.uk ."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Antonios","family":"Giannopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Edinburgh, School of Engineering, Institute for Infrastructure and Environment 1 , Edinburgh, U.K. Email: Craig.Warren@ed.ac.uk ; A.Giannopoulos@ed.ac.uk ."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"186","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026043010241452300_B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1006\/jcph.1994.1159","article-title":"A perfectly matched layer for the absorption of electromagnetic waves","author":"Berenger","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Computational Physics"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1109\/36.481890","article-title":"A fully three-dimensional simulation of a ground-penetrating radar: FDTD theory compared with experiment","volume":"34","author":"Bourgeois","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B3","unstructured":"Buff\n              P. M.\n            \n          , 2006, Characterization of propagation on wires over lossy earth: Ph.D. thesis, North Carolina State University."},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1680\/macr.1993.45.164.187","article-title":"Simulation tank to aid interpretation of radar results on concrete","volume":"45","author":"Bungey","year":"1993","journal-title":"Magazine of Concrete Research"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.2136\/vzj2004.0143","article-title":"Numerical modeling of GPR to determine the direct ground wave sampling depth","volume":"4","author":"Galagedara","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vadose Zone Journal"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1080\/02726349608908487","article-title":"An anisotropic PML absorbing media for the FDTD simulation of fields in lossy and dispersive media","volume":"16","author":"Gedney","year":"1996","journal-title":"Electromagnetics"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2005.06.007","article-title":"Modelling ground penetrating radar by GPRMAX","author":"Giannopoulos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Construction and Building Materials"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1109\/36.851951","article-title":"Three-dimensional FDTD modeling of a ground-penetrating radar","volume":"38","author":"Gurel","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B9","article-title":"Orthogonal arrays: Theory and Applications","author":"Hedayat","year":"1999"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B10","first-page":"45","article-title":"Realistic modeling of surface ground-penetrating radar antenna systems: Where do we stand?","author":"Holliger","year":"2003"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2692","DOI":"10.1109\/36.803416","article-title":"An FDTD\/MoM hybrid technique for modeling complex antennas in the presence of heterogeneous grounds","volume":"37","author":"Huang","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B12","article-title":"Non-destructive measurement of pavement layer thickness","volume-title":"Technical Report","author":"Infrasensec, Inc.","year":"2003"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B85","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2194526","article-title":"Multiconfiguration GPR measurements for geometric fracture characterization in limestone cliffs (Alps)","volume":"71","author":"Jeannin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2005.10.001","article-title":"Simulation of direct wave propagation by numerical FDTD for a GPR coupled antenna","volume":"39","author":"Klysz","year":"2006","journal-title":"NDT and E International"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B15","first-page":"898","article-title":"Full-waveform modeling of ground-coupled GPR antennas for wave propagation in multilayered media: the problem solved?","author":"Lambot","year":"2010"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.834800","article-title":"Modeling of ground-penetrating radar for accurate characterization of subsurface electric properties","volume":"42","author":"Lambot","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1983","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2004.832501","article-title":"Modeling and investigation of a geometrically complex UWB GPR antenna using FDTD","volume":"52","author":"Lee","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2004.834444","article-title":"RC-loaded bow-tie antenna for improved pulse radiation","volume":"52","author":"Lestari","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2005.846726","article-title":"Adaptive wire bow-tie antenna for GPR applications","volume":"53","author":"Lestari","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1007\/s11460-008-0023-5","article-title":"FDTD analysis of ground-penetrating radar antennas with shields and absorbers","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Frontiers of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in China"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2007.02.002","article-title":"Prediction of the effects of soil and target properties on the antipersonnel landmine detection performance of ground-penetrating radar: A Colombian case study","volume":"63","author":"Lopera","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Geophysics"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2666","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2004.834431","article-title":"A hybrid time-domain technique that combines the finite element, finite difference and method of moment techniques to solve complex electromagnetic problems","volume":"52","author":"Monorchio","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1109\/8.777119","article-title":"FDTD analysis of resistor-loaded bow-tie antennas covered with ferrite-coated conducting cavity for subsurface radar","volume":"47","author":"Nishioka","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B24","unstructured":"Oden\n              C.\n            \n          , 2006, Calibration and data processing techniques for ground penetrating radar systems with applications in dispersive ground: Ph.D. thesis, Colorado School of Mines."},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1114","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1444212","article-title":"Modeling near-field GPR in three dimensions using the FDTD method","volume":"62","author":"Roberts","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1109\/8.299600","article-title":"Optimization of bow-tie antennas for pulse radiation","volume":"42","author":"Shlager","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1109\/8.52239","article-title":"The use of emulsions to represent dielectric materials in electromagnetic scale models","volume":"38","author":"Smith","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2006016","article-title":"A linear inverse scattering algorithm for realistic GPR applications","volume":"5","author":"Soldovieri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Near Surface Geophysics"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2753832","article-title":"Characterizing a GPR antenna system by near-field electric field measurements","author":"Streich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B30","article-title":"Taguchi's quality engineering handbook","author":"Taguchi","year":"2005"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3555","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.881747","article-title":"An investigation of some geometrical shapes and selection of shielding and lumped resistors of planar dipole antennas for GPR applications using FDTD","volume":"44","author":"Uduwawala","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.819442","article-title":"A deep parametric study of resistor-loaded bow-tie antennas for ground-penetrating radar applications using FDTD","volume":"42","author":"Uduwawala","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.2528\/PIER04061002","article-title":"A complete FDTD simulation of a real GPR antenna system operating above lossy and dispersive grounds","author":"Uduwawala","year":"2005","journal-title":"Progress in Electromagnetics Research"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2005.862264","article-title":"GA design of a thin-wire bow-tie antenna for GPR applications","volume":"44","author":"van Coevorden","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B35","article-title":"Electromagnetics and antenna optimization using Taguchi's method","author":"Weng","year":"2007"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2007.891548","article-title":"Linear antenna array synthesis using Taguchi's method: A novel optimization technique in electromagnetics","volume":"55","author":"Weng","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2478.1990.tb01876.x","article-title":"Measured underwater near-field E-patterns of a pulsed, horizontal dipole antenna in air: Comparison with the theory of the continuous wave, infinitesimal electric dipole","volume":"38","author":"Wensink","year":"1990","journal-title":"Geophysical Prospecting"},{"key":"2026043010241452300_B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2478.1991.tb00327.x","article-title":"Measured reflection strengths of underwater pipes irradiated by a pulsed horizontal dipole in air: Comparison with continuous plane-wave scattering theory","volume":"39","author":"Wensink","year":"1991","journal-title":"Geophysical Prospecting"}],"container-title":["Geophysics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.geoscienceworld.org\/seg\/geophysics\/article-pdf\/76\/2\/G37\/3236318\/gpyG37.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.geoscienceworld.org\/seg\/geophysics\/article-pdf\/76\/2\/G37\/3236318\/gpyG37.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T14:24:27Z","timestamp":1777559067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.geoscienceworld.org\/geophysics\/article\/76\/2\/G37\/248385\/Creating-finite-difference-time-domain-models-of"},"secondary":[{"URL":"http:\/\/geophysics.geoscienceworld.org\/cgi\/doi\/10.1190\/1.3548506","label":"geoscienceworld"}]},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,1]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1190\/1.3548506","relation":{},"ISSN":["1942-2156","0016-8033"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1942-2156","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0016-8033","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2011,3]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,1]]}}}