{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T12:06:16Z","timestamp":1792757176699,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,6,1]],"date-time":"2003-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1054425600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The 1815 eruption of Tambora volcano (Sumbawa island, Indonesia) expelled around 140 gt of magma (equivalent to \u224850 km\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    of dense rock), making it the largest known historic eruption. More than 95% by mass of the ejecta was erupted as pyroclastic flows, but 40% by mass of the material in these flows ended up as ash fallout from the \u2018phoenix\u2019 clouds that lofted above the flows during their emplacement. Although they made only a minor contribution to the total magnitude of the eruption, the short-lived plinian explosions that preceded the climactic eruption and caldera collapse were powerful, propelling plumes up to 43 km altitude. Over 71 000 people died during, or in the aftermath of, the eruption, on Sumbawa and the neigh-bouring island of Lombok. The eruption injected \u224860 mt of sulfur into the stratosphere, six times more than was released by the 1991 Pinatubo eruption. This formed a global sulfate aerosol veil in the stratosphere, which resulted in pronounced climate perturbations. Anomalously cold weather hit the northeastern USA, maritime provinces of Canada, and Europe the following year. 1816 came to be known as the \u2018Year without a summer\u2019 in these regions. Crop failures were widespread and the eruption has been implicated in accelerated emigration from New England, and widespread outbreaks of epidemic typhus. These events provide important insights into the volcanic forcing of climate, and the global risk of future eruptions on this scale.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1191\/0309133303pp379ra","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,5,21]],"date-time":"2003-05-21T21:41:53Z","timestamp":1053553313000},"page":"230-259","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":369,"title":["Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Clive","family":"Oppenheimer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, Cambridge CB2 3EN, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004450000105"},{"key":"atypb2","first-page":"124","volume-title":"The year without a summer? 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