{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]],"date-time":"2025-11-07T13:09:30Z","timestamp":1762520970262},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2006,1,12]],"date-time":"2006-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1137024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":468,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>A<jats:sc>bstract<\/jats:sc>: <\/jats:bold>  <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> parasites are vector\u2010borne protozoal pathogens found in tropical and subtropical regions of both the Old and New World. These parasites can cause visceral or cutaneous disease, and the pathology of the infection is determined by both host immune factors and species\/strain differences of the parasite. Dogs are an important reservoir for maintaining the population of <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> parasites that can lead to visceral leishmaniasis in humans, and a vaccination approach may be an effective method for reducing the numbers of infected dogs. Resistance to leishmaniasis has been consistently associated with a T helper 1 immune response, characterized by the production of IFN\u2010gamma by the antigen\u2010specific lymphocyte population. The development of this Th1 response has been shown to be dependent upon both cytokines and dendritic cells during T cell activation. However, the development of a <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> vaccine effective in preventing these chronic diseases has proven to be a challenge. Vaccine trials have focused on whole\u2010killed or subunit vaccines with adjuvants. Newer experimental strategies involve the attenuation of the <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> parasite via gene deletion technologies or the expression of specific <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> peptides within attenuated organisms, such as Bacillus Calmette Gu\u00e9rin. DNA vaccines and dendritic cell potentiators, such as CpG oligodeoxynucleotides and Flt\u20103 ligand, are also in the early stage of development. In addition, as part of blocking the transmission cycle of leishmaniasis, several laboratories are also exploring the possibility of immunomodulating the host toward the bite of the sand fly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1307.041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,12,16]],"date-time":"2004-12-16T23:57:42Z","timestamp":1103241462000},"page":"267-272","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["The Immunology of <i>Leishmania<\/i> Infection and the Implications for Vaccine Development"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"1026","author":[{"given":"YANNICK","family":"VANLOUBBEECK","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"DOUGLAS E.","family":"JONES","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2006,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_2_2_2","unstructured":"Center for Disease Control and Prevention N.C.F.I.D. 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