{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T20:01:27Z","timestamp":1781726487617,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,1]],"date-time":"2005-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1114905600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Cognitive Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>We present a detailed process theory of the moment\u2010by\u2010moment working\u2010memory retrievals and associated control structure that subserve sentence comprehension. The theory is derived from the application of independently motivated principles of memory and cognitive skill to the specialized task of sentence parsing. The resulting theory construes sentence processing as a series of skilled associative memory retrievals modulated by similarity\u2010based interference and fluctuating activation. The cognitive principles are formalized in computational form in the Adaptive Control of Thought\u2013Rational (ACT\u2013R) architecture, and our process model is realized in ACT\u2013R. We present the results of 6 sets of simulations: 5 simulation sets provide quantitative accounts of the effects of length and structural interference on both unambiguous and garden\u2010path structures. A final simulation set provides a graded taxonomy of double center embeddings ranging from relatively easy to extremely difficult. The explanation of center\u2010embedding difficulty is a novel one that derives from the model' complete reliance on discriminating retrieval cues in the absence of an explicit representation of serial order information. All fits were obtained with only 1 free scaling parameter fixed across the simulations; all other parameters were ACT\u2013R defaults. The modeling results support the hypothesis that fluctuating activation and similarity\u2010based interference are the key factors shaping working memory in sentence processing. We contrast the theory and empirical predictions with several related accounts of sentence\u2010processing complexity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_25","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2005,6,23]],"date-time":"2005-06-23T14:43:30Z","timestamp":1119537810000},"page":"375-419","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":608,"title":["An Activation\u2010Based Model of Sentence Processing as Skilled Memory Retrieval"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Richard L.","family":"Lewis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shravan","family":"Vasishth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","volume-title":"The theory of parsing, translation, and compiling: Vol.1. Parsing.","author":"Aho A. V.","year":"1972"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(88)90020-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","volume-title":"The architecture of cognition.","author":"Anderson J. R.","year":"1983"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_22"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","article-title":"An integrated theory of mind","author":"Anderson J. R.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Atomic components of thought.","author":"Anderson J. R.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.104.4.728"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.128.2.186"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00174.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01690968608404677"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","first-page":"225","volume-title":"Perspectives in sentence processing","author":"Bader M.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/410452"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","first-page":"279","volume-title":"Cognition and the development of language","author":"Bever T. G.","year":"1970"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0036091"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03328087"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(86)90004-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.129.2.177"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.2000.2778"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","unstructured":"Boland J. E. Lewis R. L. &Blodgett A.(2004).Distinguishing generation and selection of modifier attachments: Implications for lexicalized parsing.Manuscript submitted for publication."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog2801_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","volume-title":"Aspects of the theory of syntax.","author":"Chomsky N.","year":"1965"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00001515"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","volume-title":"Barriers.","author":"Chomsky N.","year":"1986"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","first-page":"269","volume-title":"Handbook of mathematical psychology","author":"Chomsky N.","year":"1963"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.52.1.167"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X01003922"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","unstructured":"Cowper E. A.(1976).Constraints on sentence complexity: A model for syntactic processing.Unpublished doctoral dissertation Brown University Providence RI."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","volume-title":"Mechanisms for sentence processing","author":"Crocker M. W.","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1026560822390"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.104.1.123"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog1402_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-596X(86)90006-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-596X(91)90034-H"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/4737.001.0001","volume-title":"Modularity of mind: An essay on faculty psychology.","author":"Fodor J. A.","year":"1983"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(83)90156-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","first-page":"559","volume-title":"Attention and performance","author":"Frazier L.","year":"1987"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00138988"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-596X(89)90037-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02143161"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023241830722"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(82)90008-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","first-page":"155","article-title":"Unbounded dependencies and coordinate structure","volume":"12","author":"Gazdar G.","year":"1981","journal-title":"Linguistic Inquiry"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","volume-title":"Generalized phrase structure grammar.","author":"Gazdar G.","year":"1985"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","volume-title":"A computational theory of human linguistic processing: Memory limitations and processing breakdown","author":"Gibson E. A.","year":"1991"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0277(98)00034-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","first-page":"95","volume-title":"Image, language, brain","author":"Gibson E. A.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","unstructured":"Gibson E. A. &Thomas J.(1997).The complexity of nested structures in English: Evidence for the syntactic prediction locality theory of linguistic complexity.Unpublished manuscript Massachusetts Institute of Technology."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/016909699386293"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","first-page":"291","volume-title":"Universals of human language: Vol. 4. Syntax","author":"Giv\u00f3n T.","year":"1978"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.27.6.1411"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2004.02.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00475"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/412566"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.2001.2808"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","article-title":"Consequences of the serial nature of linguistic input for sentential complexity","author":"Grodner D. J.","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.09.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03208920"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03213177"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(81)90001-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","first-page":"71","volume-title":"Syntax and semantics","author":"Hirose Y.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(81)90533-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","first-page":"465","article-title":"On the applicability of root transformations","volume":"4","author":"Hooper J. B.","year":"1973","journal-title":"Linguistic Inquiry"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/jshr.2104.809"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","first-page":"9","volume-title":"Japanese sentence processing","author":"Inoue A.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","volume-title":"Mental models.","author":"Johnson\u2010Laird P. N.","year":"1983"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog2002_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.99.1.122"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196850"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(72)90028-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0749-596X(91)90027-H"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1026528912821"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/016909697386871"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_74_1","first-page":"179","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Sixth ESSLLI Student Session","author":"Korthals C.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_75_1","first-page":"53","volume-title":"Recent transformational studies in European languages","author":"Koster J.","year":"1978"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03209186"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_77_1","unstructured":"Lewis R. L.(1993).An architecturally\u2010based theory of human sentence comprehension(Tech. Rep. CMU\u2010CS\u201093\u2013226). Retrieved March 18 2005 fromhttp:www\u2010personal.umich.edu~rick1Documentsthesis.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01708421"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-015-9070-9_8"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_80_1","unstructured":"Lewis R. L.(1998 March).Working memory in sentence processing: Retroactive and proactive interference in parsing.Paper presented at The 11th Annual CUNY Conference on Human Sentence Processing New Brunswick NJ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_81_1","first-page":"56","volume-title":"Architectures and mechanisms for language processing","author":"Lewis R. L.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_82_1","first-page":"255","volume-title":"The atomic components of thought","author":"Lovett M.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.109.1.35"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.101.4.676"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(68)80106-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1993.1028"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1997.2545"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.118.4.346"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.122.3.291"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-596X(02)00515-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.110.3.490"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.104.1.3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0043158"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_94_1","first-page":"419","volume-title":"Handbook of mathematical psychology","author":"Miller G. A.","year":"1963"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0019-9958(64)90310-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_96_1","first-page":"375","volume-title":"Handbook of psycholinguistics","author":"Mitchell D. C.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-170150-5.50016-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_98_1","volume-title":"Unified theories of cognition.","author":"Newell A.","year":"1990"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_99_1","volume-title":"Human problem solving.","author":"Newell A.","year":"1972"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_100_1","volume-title":"Head\u2010driven phrase structure grammar.","author":"Pollard C.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-3986-5_3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_102_1","first-page":"53","article-title":"Why a sentence in which a sentence in which a sentence is embedded is embedded is difficult","author":"Schlesinger I. M.","year":"1975","journal-title":"International Journal of Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(74)80064-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.183.4124.482"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_105_1","first-page":"237","article-title":"Supertagging: An approach to almost parsing","volume":"25","author":"Srinivas B.","year":"1999","journal-title":"Computational Linguistics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_106_1","first-page":"303","volume-title":"Perspectives in sentence processing","author":"Stabler E. P.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_107_1","volume-title":"Surface structure and interpretation.","author":"Steedman M.","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/6591.001.0001","volume-title":"The Syntactic Process.","author":"Steedman M.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02145044"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_110_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/016909697386853"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_111_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7777863"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_112_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1994.1014"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_113_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2003.10.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_114_1","unstructured":"VanDyke J. A.(2002).Retrieval effects in sentence parsing and interpretation.Unpublished doctoral dissertation University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh PA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_115_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-596X(03)00081-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_116_1","first-page":"425","article-title":"An efficient implementation of the head\u2010corner parser","volume":"23","author":"Noord G.","year":"1997","journal-title":"Computational Linguistics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_117_1","unstructured":"Vannest J. Newman A. Polk T. A. Lewis R. L. Newport E. L. &Bavelier D.(2004).fMRI evidence that some but not all derived words are decomposed during lexical access.Manuscript submitted for publication."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_118_1","article-title":"Dual\u2010route processing of complex words: New fMRI evidence from derivational suffixation","author":"Vannest J.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_119_1","volume-title":"Quantifying processing difficulty in human sentence parsing: The role of decay, activation, and similarity\u2010based interference","author":"Vasishth S.","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_120_1","volume-title":"Working memory in sentence comprehension: Processing Hindi center embeddings.","author":"Vasishth S.","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_121_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vasishth S. Cramer I. Scheepers C. &Wagner J.(2003).Does increasing distance facilitate processing?InProceedings of the 16th Annual CUNY Sentence Processing Conference.MIT Cambridge MA (Available from:ftp:ftp.coli.uni\u2010sb.depubpeoplevasishthwip.html).","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203500576-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_122_1","unstructured":"Vasishth S. Scheepers C. Uszkoreit H. Wagner J. &Kruijff G. J. M.(2004 March).Constraint defeasibility and concurrent constraint satisfaction in human sentence processing.Paper presented at the CUNY Sentence Processing Conference Cambridge MA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_123_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0277(00)00063-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_124_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(70)80079-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_125_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5371(80)90276-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_126_1","first-page":"444","article-title":"A model and an hypothesis for language structure","volume":"104","author":"Yngve V. H.","year":"1960","journal-title":"Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society"}],"container-title":["Cognitive Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1207%2Fs15516709cog0000_25","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_25","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,26]],"date-time":"2024-10-26T16:04:53Z","timestamp":1729958693000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_25"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2005,5]]},"references-count":125,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,5,6]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_25"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_25","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0364-0213","1551-6709"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0364-0213","type":"print"},{"value":"1551-6709","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2005,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2005-05-01","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}