{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,4]],"date-time":"2026-02-04T15:36:26Z","timestamp":1770219386432,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"The Endocrine Society","issue":"12","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>A variety of fundamental differences have evolved in the physiology of the human and rodent prolactin (PRL) systems. The PRL gene in humans and other primates contains an alternative promoter, 5.8 kbp upstream of the pituitary transcription start site, which drives expression of PRL in \u201cextrapituitary\u201d tissues, where PRL is believed to exert local, or paracrine, actions. Several of these extrapituitary PRL tissues serve a reproductive function (eg, mammary gland, decidua, prostate, etc), consistent with the hypothesis that local PRL production may be involved in, and required for, normal reproductive physiology in primates. Rodent research models have generated significant findings regarding the role of PRL in reproduction. Specifically, disruption (knockout) of either the PRL gene or its receptor causes profound female reproductive defects at several levels (ovaries, preimplantation endometrium, mammary glands). However, the rodent PRL gene differs significantly from the human, most notably lacking the alternative promoter. Understanding of the physiological regulation and function of extrapituitary PRL has been limited by the absence of a readily accessible experimental model, because the rodent PRL gene does not contain the alternative promoter. To overcome these limitations, we have generated mice that have been \u201chumanized\u201d with regard to the structural gene and tissue expression of PRL. Here, we present the characterization of these animals, demonstrating that the human PRL transgene is responsive to known physiological regulators both in vitro and in vivo. More importantly, the expression of the human PRL transgene is able to rescue the reproductive defects observed in mouse PRL knockout (mPRL\u2212) females, validating their usefulness in studying the function or regulation of this hormone in a manner that is relevant to human physiology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2013-1476","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,13]],"date-time":"2013-09-13T03:19:48Z","timestamp":1379042388000},"page":"4777-4789","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Completely Humanizing Prolactin Rescues Infertility in Prolactin Knockout Mice and Leads to Human Prolactin Expression in Extrapituitary Mouse Tissues"],"prefix":"10.1210","volume":"154","author":[{"given":"Heather R.","family":"Christensen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology (H.R.C., N.D.H., K.A.G.), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267\u20130004"},{"name":"Programs in Systems Biology and Physiology (H.R.C., N.D.H., K.A.G.), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267\u20130004"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael K.","family":"Murawsky","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy (M.K.M., K.A.G.), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267\u20130004"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nelson D.","family":"Horseman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology (H.R.C., N.D.H., K.A.G.), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267\u20130004"},{"name":"Programs in Systems Biology and Physiology (H.R.C., N.D.H., K.A.G.), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267\u20130004"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tara A.","family":"Willson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cancer and Cell Biology (T.A.W.), University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267\u20130004"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Karen A.","family":"Gregerson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"James L. 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