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Adrenal functions were inferred from the adrenal insufficiency syndrome described by Addison and from the obesity and virilization that accompanied many adrenal malignancies, but early physiologists sometimes confused the roles of the cortex and medulla. Medullary epinephrine was the first hormone to be isolated (in 1901), and numerous cortical steroids were isolated between 1930 and 1949. The treatment of arthritis, Addison\u2019s disease, and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) with cortisone in the 1950s revolutionized clinical endocrinology and steroid research. Cases of CAH had been reported in the 19th century, but a defect in 21-hydroxylation in CAH was not identified until 1957. Other forms of CAH, including deficiencies of 3\u03b2-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 11\u03b2-hydroxylase, and 17\u03b1-hydroxylase were defined hormonally in the 1960s. Cytochrome P450 enzymes were described in 1962-1964, and steroid 21-hydroxylation was the first biosynthetic activity associated with a P450. Understanding of the genetic and biochemical bases of these disorders advanced rapidly from 1984 to 2004. The cloning of genes for steroidogenic enzymes and related factors revealed many mutations causing known diseases and facilitated the discovery of new disorders. Genetics and cell biology have replaced steroid chemistry as the key disciplines for understanding and teaching steroidogenesis and its disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1210\/endrev\/bnac019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,10]],"date-time":"2022-08-10T18:03:51Z","timestamp":1660154631000},"page":"70-116","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["History of Adrenal Research: From Ancient Anatomy to Contemporary Molecular Biology"],"prefix":"10.1210","volume":"44","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5245-4464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Walter L","family":"Miller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Center for Reproductive Sciences, and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California , San Francisco, CA , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6262-0289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Perrin C","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas, TX , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"80","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,10]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"2024021709164902200_bnac028-B1","first-page":"39","article-title":"The early history of the adrenal glands: with particular reference to theories of function","volume":"4","author":"Shumacker","year":"1936","journal-title":"Bull Inst History Med"},{"issue":"4","key":"2024021709164902200_bnac028-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/VI.Autumn.496","article-title":"The history of research on the adrenals; 1563-1900","volume":"6","author":"Lenard","year":"1951","journal-title":"J Hist Med Allied Sci."},{"issue":"2","key":"2024021709164902200_bnac028-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1515\/REVNEURO.1989.2.2.83","article-title":"The history of the adrenal medulla","volume":"2","author":"Carmichael","year":"1989","journal-title":"Rev Neurosci."},{"issue":"4","key":"2024021709164902200_bnac028-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.14310\/horm.2002.1216","article-title":"The adrenal glands: a brief historical perspective","volume":"7","author":"Leoutsakos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hormones (Athens)"},{"issue":"1-2","key":"2024021709164902200_bnac028-B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2012.10.023","article-title":"A brief history of adrenal research: Steroidogenesis - the soul of the adrenal","volume":"371","author":"Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol Cell Endocrinol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2024021709164902200_bnac028-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03401414","article-title":"Landmarks in the history of adrenal surgery","volume":"15","author":"Papadakis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hormones (Athens)"},{"key":"2024021709164902200_bnac028-B7","volume-title":"The Iliad (R. 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