{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T16:49:35Z","timestamp":1791996575233,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2001,1,1]],"date-time":"2001-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":978307200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2001,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Nasal drug administration has frequently been proposed as the most feasible alternative to parenteral injections. This is due to the high permeability of the nasal epithelium, allowing a higher molecular mass cut-off at approximately 1000 Da, and the rapid drug absorption rate with plasma drug profiles sometimes almost identical to those from intravenous injections. Despite the potential of nasal drug delivery, it has a number of limitations. In this review, the anatomy and physiology of the nasal cavity, as well as ciliary beating and mucociliary clearance as they relate to nasal drug absorption, are introduced. The rationale for nasal drug delivery and its limitations, some factors that influence nasal drug absorption, and the experimental models used in nasal drug delivery research are also reviewed. Nasal mucoadhesion as a promising method of nasal absorption enhancement is discussed, and factors that influence mucoadhesion, as well as safety of nasal mucoadhesive drug delivery systems are reviewed in detail.<\/jats:p>\n               <jats:p>Nasal drug administration is presently mostly used for local therapies within the nasal cavity. Anti-allergic drugs and nasal decongestants are the most common examples. However, nasal drug administration for systemic effects has been practised since ancient times. Nasally-administered psychotropic drugs by native Americans, the use of tobacco snuffs, and nasal administration of illicit drugs such as cocaine are all well known (Illum &amp; Davis 1992). Nowadays, the nasal cavity is being actively explored for systemic administration of other therapeutic agents, particularly peptides and proteins (Illum 1992; Edman &amp; Bjork 1992), as well as for immunization purposes (Lemoine et al 1998). To better understand the basis for nasal drug absorption and factors that can influence it, a brief review of the anatomy and physiology of the nose is appropriate.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1211\/0022357011775145","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,7,18]],"date-time":"2003-07-18T23:43:52Z","timestamp":1058571832000},"page":"3-21","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":276,"title":["The biopharmaceutical aspects of nasal mucoadhesive drug delivery"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"53","author":[{"given":"Michael Ikechukwu","family":"Ugwoke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorium voor Farmacotechnologie en Biofarmacie, Campus Gasthuisberg O&N, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven , B-3000 Leuven,","place":["Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norbert","family":"Verbeke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorium voor Farmacotechnologie en Biofarmacie, Campus Gasthuisberg O&N, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven , B-3000 Leuven,","place":["Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Renaat","family":"Kinget","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorium voor Farmacotechnologie en Biofarmacie, Campus Gasthuisberg O&N, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven , B-3000 Leuven,","place":["Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2001,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024103110055092600_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018994807746","article-title":"The effects of pharmaceutical compounds on ciliary beating in human nasal epithelial cells: a comparative study of cell culture models","volume":"16","author":"Agu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pharm. 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