{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T18:48:15Z","timestamp":1792176495266,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Duke University Press","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Access to safe and stable housing is important for child and adult well-being. Yet many low-income households face severe challenges in maintaining stable housing. In this article, we examine the impact of the 2021 temporary expansion to the Child Tax Credit (CTC) on housing affordability and the living arrangements of families with low incomes. We employ a parameterized difference-in-differences method and leverage national data from a sample of parents who are receiving or recently received Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits (N = \u223c20,500), many of whom became newly eligible for the CTC. We find that the monthly CTC reduced parents\u2019 past-due rent\/mortgages (both amounts and incidence) and their reports of potential moves due to difficulties affording rent\/mortgages. The CTC increased the likelihood that parents reported a change in their living arrangements and reduced their household size, both effects driven by fewer mothers living with a partner (and not a reduction in doubling up). We find some differences in effects by race and ethnicity and earnings. Our findings illustrate that the monthly credit improved low-income parents\u2019 ability to afford housing, gain residential independence from partners, and reduce the number of people residing in their household.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1215\/00703370-11458327","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T12:44:34Z","timestamp":1720701874000},"page":"1069-1096","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["The Effects of the 2021 Child Tax Credit on Housing Affordability and the Living Arrangements of Families With Low Incomes"],"prefix":"10.1215","volume":"61","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0675-1855","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Natasha V.","family":"Pilkauskas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6288-3561","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Katherine","family":"Michelmore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9586-7210","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nicole","family":"Kovski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison, Madison, WI, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"73","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amorim\n              M.\n            \n          , DunifonR., & PilkauskasN. (2017). The magnitude and timing of grandparental coresidence during childhood in the United States. Demographic Research, 37, 1695\u20131706. https:\/\/www.demographic-research.org\/Volumes\/Vol37\/52\/","DOI":"10.4054\/DemRes.2017.37.52"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amorim\n              M.\n            \n          , & PilkauskasN. (2023). \u201cExcess\u201d doubling up during COVID: Changes in children's shared living arrangements. Demography, 60, 1283\u20131307. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1215\/00703370-10949975","DOI":"10.1215\/00703370-10949975"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3386\/w29823","volume-title":"Effects of the expanded Child Tax Credit on employment outcomes: Evidence from real-world data from April to December 2021","author":"Ananat","year":"2022"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1086\/227597","article-title":"Determinants of extended household structure: Cultural pattern or economic need?","volume":"87","author":"Angel","year":"1982","journal-title":"American Journal of Sociology"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1177\/0192513X12439177","article-title":"Multigenerational households and the school readiness of children born to unmarried mothers","volume":"34","author":"Augustine","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Family Issues"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C6","volume-title":"The Whiteness of wealth: How the tax system impoverishes Black Americans\u2014and how we can fix it.","author":"Brown","year":"2021"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C7","unstructured":"Burns\n              K.\n            \n          , FoxL., & WilsonD. (2022, September13). Expansions to Child Tax Credit contributed to 46% decline in child poverty since 2020. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.census.gov\/library\/stories\/2022\/09\/record-drop-in-child-poverty.html"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhe.2012.04.004","article-title":"Long-term effects of public low-income housing vouchers on neighborhood quality and household composition","volume":"21","author":"Carlson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Housing Economics"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s41996-022-00109-5","article-title":"Racial and ethnic disparities in housing instability during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of assets and income shocks","volume":"6","author":"Chun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Economics, Race, and Policy"},{"issue":"4","key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.15453\/0191-5096.2941","article-title":"Finding and keeping affordable housing: Analyzing the experiences of single-mother families in North Philadelphia","volume":"30","author":"Clampet-Lundquist","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C11","unstructured":"Cohen\n              R.\n            \n          , & WardripK. (2011). Should I stay or should I go? Exploring the effects of housing instability and mobility on children (Report). Washington, DC: Center for Housing Policy. Retrieved from https:\/\/mcstudy.norc.org\/publications\/files\/CohenandWardrip_2009.pdf"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collyer\n              S.\n            \n          , GandhiJ., GarfinkelI., RossS., WaldfogelJ., & WimerC. (2022). The effects of the 2021 monthly Child Tax Credit on child and family well-being: Evidence from New York City. Socius, 8. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/23780231221141165","DOI":"10.31235\/osf.io\/rnmfv"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C13","unstructured":"Collyer\n              S.\n            \n          , WimerC., & HarrisD. (2019). Left behind: The one-third of children in families who earn too little to get the full Child Tax Credit (Poverty & Social Policy Brief, Vol. 3 No. 6). New York, NY: Center on Poverty and Social Policy, Columbia University. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.povertycenter.columbia.edu\/publication\/2019\/children-left-behind-in-child-tax-credit"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.2307\/352931","article-title":"Linking economic hardship to marital quality and instability","volume":"52","author":"Conger","year":"1990","journal-title":"Journal of Marriage and the Family"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C15","unstructured":"Cooney\n              P.\n            \n          , & ShaeferH. L. (2021). Trends in hardship and mental health in the United States at the end of 2020 (Policy brief). Ann Arbor: Poverty Solutions at the University of Michigan. Retrieved from https:\/\/poverty.umich.edu\/files\/2021\/02\/PovertySolutionsMaterialHardshipEndof2020-Feb2021.pdf"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C16","unstructured":"Crandall-Hollick\n              M. L.\n            \n           (2018). The Child Tax Credit: Legislative history (CRS Report, No. 45124). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from https:\/\/crsreports.congress.gov\/product\/pdf\/R\/R45124\/6"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3729.2011.00664.x","article-title":"Bound by children: Intermittent cohabitation and living together apart","volume":"60","author":"Cross-Barnet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Family Relations"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C18","unstructured":"Curran\n              M. A.\n            \n           (2021). Research roundup of the expanded Child Tax Credit: The first 6 months (Poverty & Social Policy Brief, Vol. 5 No. 25). New York, NY: Center on Poverty and Social Policy, Columbia University. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.povertycenter.columbia.edu\/publication\/child-tax-credit\/research-roundup"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.2307\/2946684","article-title":"Health insurance eligibility, utilization of medical care, and child health","volume":"111","author":"Currie","year":"1996","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1086\/666082","article-title":"Eviction and the reproduction of urban poverty","volume":"118","author":"Desmond","year":"2012","journal-title":"American Journal of Sociology"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1093\/socpro\/spv025","article-title":"Housing and employment insecurity among the working poor","volume":"63","author":"Desmond","year":"2016","journal-title":"Social Problems"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1093\/sf\/sov044","article-title":"Eviction's fallout: Housing, hardship, and health","volume":"94","author":"Desmond","year":"2015","journal-title":"Social Forces"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.2307\/3097154","article-title":"What do low-income single mothers say about marriage?","volume":"47","author":"Edin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Social Problems"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1111\/jomf.12495","article-title":"Serial cohabitation in young adulthood: Baby boomers to millennials","volume":"80","author":"Eickmeyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Marriage and Family"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.3368\/jhr.XL.2.354","article-title":"Social Security and elderly living arrangements: Evidence from the Social Security notch","volume":"40","author":"Engelhardt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Human Resources"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3386\/w31110","volume-title":"The short-term labor supply response to the expanded Child Tax Credit","author":"Enriquez","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1607","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2022.00730","article-title":"No evidence the Child Tax Credit expansion had an effect on the well-being and mental health of parents","volume":"41","author":"Glasner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health Affairs"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1086\/717919","article-title":"Who benefits from the Child Tax Credit?","volume":"75","author":"Goldin","year":"2022","journal-title":"National Tax Journal"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greig\n              F.\n            \n          , & DeadmanE. (2022). Household pulse: The state of cash balances through March 2022. JPMorgan Chase Institute. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.jpmorganchase.com\/institute\/all-topics\/financial-health-wealth-creation\/household-pulse-cash-balances-through-march-2022","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4072018"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C30","unstructured":"Hamilton\n              L.\n            \n          , RollS., DespardM., MaagE., ChunY., BruggerL., & Grinstein-WeissM. (2022). The impacts of the 2021 expanded Child Tax Credit on family employment, nutrition, and financial well-being: Findings from the Social Policy Institute's Child Tax Credit Panel (Wave 2) (Brookings Global Working Paper, No. 173). Global Economy and Development at Brookings. 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(2021). Under whose roof? Understanding the living arrangements of children in doubled-up households. 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A., & WimerC. (2021). Monthly poverty rates among children after the expansion of the Child Tax Credit (Poverty & Social Policy Brief, Vol. 5 No. 4). New York, NY: Center on Poverty and Social Policy, Columbia University. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.povertycenter.columbia.edu\/s\/Monthly-Poverty-with-CTC-July-CPSP-2021.pdf"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2016.09.024","article-title":"Reconsidering residential mobility: Differential effects on child wellbeing by race and ethnicity","volume":"63","author":"Perkins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Social Science Research"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-018-0757-5","article-title":"Changes in household composition and children's educational attainment","volume":"56","author":"Perkins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"2024080516165493600_dem11458327C54","unstructured":"Pilkauskas\n              N.\n            \n          , & CooneyP. (2021). Receipt and usage of Child Tax Credit payments among low-income families: What we know (Policy brief). 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