{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T01:22:33Z","timestamp":1791422553289,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Duke University Press","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Developmental disabilities are prevalent among U.S. children, child disability rates have been increasing, and the increases have been driven by cognitive and behavioral disorders. This study estimates the effects of low cognitive test scores and high behavior problem scores in childhood on educational attainment, employment, wages, and access to transportation and credit in adulthood. We assess cognitive and behavior scores at multiple time points during childhood and estimate cross-household and household fixed-effects models. We find that individuals with low cognitive scores in childhood are 10% less likely to graduate from high school, 23% less likely to be employed, 31% less likely to own a motor vehicle, and 18% less likely to have a credit card, and they have 51% lower earnings compared with individuals with higher cognitive scores. We also find that individuals with high behavior problem scores in childhood are 7% less likely to graduate from high school, 11% less likely to be employed, and 13% less likely to own a motor vehicle, and they have 14% lower earnings compared with those with lower behavior problem scores. The findings have important implications for well-being over the life course for a nontrivial share of the U.S. population as well as their families and communities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1215\/00703370-12543998","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T11:41:50Z","timestamp":1776426110000},"page":"483-509","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Impaired Cognitive and Behavioral Functioning in Childhood and Economic Outcomes in Adulthood"],"prefix":"10.1215","volume":"63","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0213-1392","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hope","family":"Corman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Rider University, Lawrenceville, NJ, USA; National Bureau of Economic Research, New York, NY, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1728-3436","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kelly","family":"Noonan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7285-1515","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nancy E.","family":"Reichman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics and Child Health Institute of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"73","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1037\/fam0001093","article-title":"Marital status over 28 years of parents of individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities","volume":"37","author":"Bahri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Family Psychology"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C2","volume-title":"NLSY child handbook: A guide to the 1986\u20131990 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth child data","author":"Baker","year":"1993"},{"issue":"5, part 2","key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1086\/258724","article-title":"Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis","volume":"70","author":"Becker","year":"1962","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/2607.003.0007","article-title":"Credit cards: Facts and theories","volume-title":"The economics of consumer credit","author":"Bertaut","year":"2006"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1093\/ej\/ueaa074","article-title":"Sibling spillovers","volume":"131","author":"Black","year":"2021","journal-title":"Economic Journal"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-009-0538-2","article-title":"Birth weight and health and developmental outcomes in U.S. children, 1997\u20132005","volume":"15","author":"Boulet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Maternal and Child Health Journal"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econlet.2014.07.010","article-title":"The presence of ADHD: Spillovers between siblings","volume":"124","author":"Breining","year":"2014","journal-title":"Economics Letters"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tranpol.2017.09.016","article-title":"Car-less or car-free? Socioeconomic and mobility differences among zero-car households","volume":"60","author":"Brown","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transport Policy"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1177\/1044207311414680","article-title":"Predictors of postschool employment outcomes for young adults with severe disabilities","volume":"23","author":"Carter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Disability Policy Studies"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-economics-051520-015607","article-title":"The great divide: Education, despair, and death","volume":"14","author":"Case","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annual Review of Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.1257\/000282802762024520","article-title":"Economic status and health in childhood: The origins of the gradient","volume":"92","author":"Case","year":"2002","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C12","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2026). Developmental disabilities: Facts. Available from https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/child-development\/about\/developmental-disability-basics.html"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.2307\/136200","article-title":"The determinants of literacy and numeracy, and the effect of literacy and numeracy on labour market outcomes","volume":"31","author":"Charette","year":"1998","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1080\/1034912X.2020.1722073","article-title":"Education and employment transitions among young adults with disabilities: Comparisons by disability status, type and severity","volume":"69","author":"Cheatham","year":"2022","journal-title":"International Journal of Disability, Development and Education"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.4226","volume":"315","author":"Chetty","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-7757(98)00015-6","article-title":"The effect of low birthweight on the school performance and behavior of school-aged children","volume":"17","author":"Corman","year":"1998","journal-title":"Economics of Education Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1002\/soej.12279","article-title":"Evolution of the infant health production function","volume":"85","author":"Corman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Southern Economic Journal"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6750a1","article-title":"Health care, family, and community factors associated with mental, behavioral, and developmental disorders and poverty among children aged 2\u20138 years\u2014United States, 2016","volume":"67","author":"Cree","year":"2018","journal-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C19","first-page":"23","volume-title":"The impact of learning disabilities on children and parental outcomes: Evidence from the panel study of income dynamics","author":"Cummings","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1257\/000282803322655563","article-title":"Socioeconomic status and child health: Why is the relationship stronger for older children?","volume":"93","author":"Currie","year":"2003","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1353\/jhr.2010.0013","article-title":"Child health and young adult outcomes","volume":"45","author":"Currie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Human Resources"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econedurev.2018.11.006","article-title":"The effects of youth transition programs on labor market outcomes of youth with disabilities","volume":"68","author":"Dean","year":"2019","journal-title":"Economics of Education Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-7757(03)00040-2","article-title":"Numeracy, literacy and earnings: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth","volume":"22","author":"Dougherty","year":"2003","journal-title":"Economics of Education Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9914.2012.00553.x","article-title":"The effect of early cognitive ability on earnings over the life-cycle","volume":"26","author":"Falch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Labour"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1177\/106342669300100306","article-title":"Externalizing behavior in the life course: The transition from school to work","volume":"1","author":"Farmer","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1080\/00036846.2021.1962510","article-title":"Female long-term labour market outcomes: The role of early-life abilities and education","volume":"54","author":"Favaro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Applied Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3386\/w18279","volume-title":"Am I my brother's keeper? Sibling spillover effects: The case of developmental disabilities and externalizing behavior","author":"Fletcher","year":"2012"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhealeco.2007.10.010","article-title":"Child mental health and human capital accumulation: The case of ADHD revisited","volume":"27","author":"Fletcher","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Health Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.1319","article-title":"Adolescent depression: Diagnosis, treatment, and educational attainment","volume":"17","author":"Fletcher","year":"2008","journal-title":"Health Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1002\/hec.1526","article-title":"Adolescent depression and educational attainment: Results using sibling fixed effects","volume":"19","author":"Fletcher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Health Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6032","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1016970108","article-title":"The long shadow cast by childhood physical and mental problems on adult life","volume":"108","author":"Goodman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"issue":"3, part 2","key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S74","DOI":"10.1086\/259988","article-title":"Education, income, and ability","volume":"80","author":"Griliches","year":"1972","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1353\/foc.2012.0004","article-title":"The changing landscape of disability in childhood","volume":"22","author":"Halfon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future of Children"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C34","first-page":"409","article-title":"Schooling and earnings of low achievers","volume":"60","author":"Hansen","year":"1970","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.labeco.2009.06.001","article-title":"The returns to cognitive abilities and personality traits in Germany","volume":"17","author":"Heineck","year":"2010","journal-title":"Labour Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-0594","article-title":"Changing trends of childhood disability, 2001\u20132011","volume":"134","author":"Houtrow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0b013e3181c72401","article-title":"Developmental and behavioral disorders grown-up\u2014Intellectual disability","volume":"31","author":"Huang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-016-0469-7","article-title":"Understanding the disability dynamics of youth: Health condition and limitation changes for youth and their influence on longitudinal survey attrition","volume":"53","author":"Mann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240406900502","article-title":"Childhood emotional and behavioral problems and educational attainment","volume":"69","author":"McLeod","year":"2004","journal-title":"American Sociological Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146512462888","article-title":"Adolescent mental health, behavior problems, and academic achievement","volume":"53","author":"McLeod","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Health and Social Behavior"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2693","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010076108","article-title":"A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety","volume":"108","author":"Moffitt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C42","unstructured":"National Longitudinal Surveys. (n.d.). Children and young adults: 1979. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.nlsinfo.org\/content\/cohorts\/nlsy79-children\/topical-guide\/assessments\/introduction"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1353\/dem.2006.0036","article-title":"Reproducing inequalities: Luck, wallets, and the enduring effects of childhood health","volume":"43","author":"Palloni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1542\/pir.2016-0116","article-title":"Intellectual disabilities","volume":"39","author":"Purugganan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics in Review"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-007-0307-z","article-title":"Impact of child disability on the family","volume":"12","author":"Reichman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Maternal and Child Health Journal"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-006-0158-z","article-title":"A cumulative risk factor model for early identification of academic difficulties in premature and low birth weight infants","volume":"11","author":"Roberts","year":"2007","journal-title":"Maternal and Child Health Journal"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robinson, L. R.\n          , Holbrook, J. R., Bitsko, R. H., Hartwig, S. A., Kaminski, J. W., Ghandour, R. M.,\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0Boyle, C. A. (2017). Differences in health care, family, and community factors associated with mental, behavioral, and developmental disorders among children aged 2\u20138 years in rural and urban areas\u2014United States, 2011\u20132012 (MMWR Surveillance Summaries, Vol. 66 No. SS-8). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.15585\/mmwr.ss6608a1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.ss6608a1"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2016.02.012","article-title":"Population impact of preterm birth and low birth weight on developmental disabilities in U.S. children","volume":"26","author":"Schieve","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annals of Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1086\/258393","article-title":"Capital formation by education","volume":"68","author":"Schultz","year":"1960","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2010.02.046","article-title":"Long-term economic costs of psychological problems during childhood","volume":"71","author":"Smith","year":"2010","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C51","volume-title":"Annual statistical report on the Social Security Disability Insurance program","author":"Social Security Administration","year":"2021"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1353\/foc.2012.0008","article-title":"The economic costs of childhood disability","volume":"22","author":"Stabile","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future of Children"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C53","unstructured":"U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2025). National Longitudinal Surveys: NLSY79 data overview. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/nls\/nlsy79.htm"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C54","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Education. (2019, November7). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): Section 1412. Retrieved from https:\/\/sites.ed.gov\/idea\/statute-chapter-33\/subchapter-ii\/1412"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2019.1326","article-title":"Association between childhood behaviors and adult employment earnings in Canada","volume":"76","author":"Vergunst","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.2307\/1926818","article-title":"Monetary returns to college education, student ability, and college quality","volume":"50","author":"Weisbrod","year":"1968","journal-title":"Review of Economics and Statistics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C57","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ripple effects of developmental disabilities and mental illness on nondisabled adult siblings","author":"Wolfe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine, 108"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C58","volume-title":"Childhood disability in the United States: 2019","author":"Young","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C59","first-page":"265","article-title":"Disability and disadvantage: A study of a cohort of Australian youth","volume":"13","author":"Yu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Australian Journal of Labour Economics"},{"key":"2026051113173796800_dem12543998C60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20190811","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2019-0811","article-title":"Prevalence and trends of developmental disabilities among children in the United States: 2009\u20132017","volume":"144","author":"Zablotsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatrics"}],"container-title":["Demography"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/read.dukeupress.edu\/demography\/article-pdf\/63\/2\/483\/2416473\/483corman.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/read.dukeupress.edu\/demography\/article-pdf\/63\/2\/483\/2416473\/483corman.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T17:17:51Z","timestamp":1778519871000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/read.dukeupress.edu\/demography\/article\/63\/2\/483\/409373\/Impaired-Cognitive-and-Behavioral-Functioning-in"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1215\/00703370-12543998","relation":{},"ISSN":["0070-3370","1533-7790"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0070-3370","type":"print"},{"value":"1533-7790","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]}}}