{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T00:51:39Z","timestamp":1782348699719,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"The Company of Biologists","issue":"5","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,3,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Previous studies have established that the gaseous signalling molecule nitric oxide (NO) and the SALMFamide neuropeptides S1 and S2 cause cardiac stomach relaxation in the starfish Asterias rubens. Here we show that S1, S2 and the NO donor SNAP also cause relaxation of two other preparations from Asterias \u2014 tube feet and the apical muscle of the body wall. The rank order of effectiveness as muscle relaxants when tested at a concentration of 10 \u03bcmol l-1 was SNAP&amp;gt;S2&amp;gt;S1 for both tube feet and apical muscle whereas for cardiac stomach it was S2&amp;gt;S1&amp;gt;SNAP. Significantly, these data indicate that NO and SALMFamide neuropeptides function as general muscle relaxants in starfish but vary in their relative importance in different organ systems.<\/jats:p>\n               <jats:p>The molecular mechanisms by which NO and SALMFamides cause muscle relaxation in starfish are not known, but previous pharmacological studies on the cardiac stomach using the soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazol[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) indicate that the cyclic nucleotide second messenger cGMP may mediate effects of NO. Consistent with this hypothesis, here we report that ODQ also causes partial inhibition of the relaxing effect of SNAP on tube foot and apical muscle preparations. To further investigate the involvement of cyclic nucleotides as mediators of the effects of NO and SALMFamides on starfish muscle, we have measured both cGMP and cAMP in cardiac stomach and in apical muscle after treatment with S1, S2 or SNAP. However, no significant changes in cyclic nucleotide content were observed compared with controls. Further experiments were performed on apical muscle tissue in the presence of the cyclic-nucleotide-phosphodiesterase inhibitor 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX), a drug that also causes cardiac stomach relaxation in starfish. Treatment with IBMX caused a 2-3-fold increase above basal levels for cGMP and cAMP, but co-treatment with IBMX and S1 or S2 or SNAP resulted in no significant further increase above the level observed with IBMX alone. We conclude from these data that the relaxing action of NO on starfish muscle may be mediated by both cGMP-dependent and cGMP-independent pathways. However, the mechanisms by which SALMFamides cause muscle relaxation in starfish remain unknown and, although our results do not rule out the involvement of cGMP or cAMP, other signalling pathways may now need to be investigated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.00197","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,24]],"date-time":"2003-01-24T18:23:59Z","timestamp":1043432639000},"page":"893-899","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Comparative analysis of nitric oxide and SALMFamide neuropeptides as general muscle relaxants in starfish"],"prefix":"10.1242","volume":"206","author":[{"given":"Richard","family":"Melarange","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Queen Mary, University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maurice R.","family":"Elphick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, Queen Mary, University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"237","reference":[{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Billack, B., Laskin, J. 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Woods Hole182,241-247.","DOI":"10.2307\/1542117"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di\u0301az-Miranda, L., Blanco, R. E. and Garci\u0301a-Arrara\u0301s, J. E. (1995). Localization of the heptapeptide GFSKLYFamide in the sea cucumber Holothuria glaberrima (Echinodermata): A light and electron microscopic study. J. Comp. Neurol.352,626-640.","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.903520410"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elphick, M. R. and Melarange, R. (1998). Nitric oxide function in an echinoderm. Biol. Bull. Mar. Biol. Lab. Woods Hole194,260-266.","DOI":"10.2307\/1543096"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elphick, M. R. and Melarange, R. (2001). Neural control of muscle relaxation in echinoderms. J. Exp. Biol.204,875-885.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.204.5.875"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF7","unstructured":"Elphick, M. R., Price, D. A., Lee, T. D. and Thorndyke, M. C. (1991). The SALMFamides: a new family of neuropeptides isolated from an echinoderm. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B243,121-127."},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elphick, M. R., Newman, S. J. and Thorndyke, M. C.(1995). Distribution and action of SALMFamide neuropeptides in the starfish Asterias rubens.J. Exp. Biol.198,2519-2525.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.198.12.2519"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janssen, L. J., Premji, M., Lu-Chao, H., Cox, G. and Keshavjee,S. (2000). NO+ but not NO radical relaxes airway smooth muscle via cGMP-independent release of internal Ca2+. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol.278,L899-L905.","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.2000.278.5.L899"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez, A., Riveros-Moreno, V., Polak, J. M., Moncada, S. and Seesma, P. (1994). Nitric oxide (NO) synthase immunoreactivity in the starfish Marthasterias glacialis.Cell Tissue Res.275,599-603.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00318828"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melarange, R., Potton, D. J., Thorndyke, M. C. and Elphick, M. R. (1999). SALMFamide neuropeptides cause relaxation and eversion of the cardiac stomach in starfish. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B266,1785-1789.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1999.0847"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF12","unstructured":"Moncada, S., Palmer, R. M. J. and Higgs, E. A.(1991). Nitric oxide \u2014 physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology. Pharmacol. Rev.43,109-142."},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moore, S. J. and Thorndyke, M. C. (1993). Immunocytochemical mapping of the novel echinoderm neuropeptide SALMFamide 1(S1) in the starfish Asterias rubens.Cell Tissue Res.274,605-618.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00314559"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newman, S. J., Elphick, M. R. and Thorndyke, M. C.(1995a). Tissue distribution of the SALMFamide neuropeptides S1 and S2 in the starfish Asterias rubens using novel monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. I. Nervous and locomotory systems. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B261,139-145.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1995.0128"},{"key":"2021042508565173200_REF15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newman, S. J., Elphick, M. R. and Thorndyke, M. C.(1995b). Tissue distribution of the SALMFamide neuropeptides S1 and S2 in the starfish Asterias rubens using novel monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. II. Digestive system. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. 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