{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T02:36:07Z","timestamp":1789785367568,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"The Company of Biologists","issue":"10","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,5,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title><jats:p>More than 3000 years ago, peoples living in the cold North European regions started developing tools such as ice skates that allowed them to travel on frozen lakes. We show here which technical and technological changes determined the main steps in the evolution of ice-skating performance over its long history. An in-depth historical research helped identify the skates displaying significantly different features from previous models and that could consequently determine a better performance in terms of speed and energy demand. Five pairs of ice skates were tested, from the bone-skates, dated about 1800 BC, to modern ones.<\/jats:p><jats:p>This paper provides evidence for the fact that the metabolic cost of locomotion on ice decreased dramatically through history, the metabolic cost of modern ice-skating being only 25% of that associated with the use of bone-skates. Moreover, for the same metabolic power, nowadays skaters can achieve speeds four times higher than their ancestors could. In the range of speeds considered, the cost of travelling on ice was speed independent for each skate model, as for running. This latter finding, combined with the accepted relationship between time of exhaustion and the sustainable fraction of metabolic power, gives the opportunity to estimate the maximum skating speed according to the distance travelled.<\/jats:p><jats:p>Ice skates were probably the first human powered locomotion tools to take the maximum advantage from the biomechanical properties of the muscular system: even when travelling at relatively high speeds, the skating movement pattern required muscles to shorten slowly so that they could also develop a considerable amount of force.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.002162","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,5,8]],"date-time":"2007-05-08T18:58:37Z","timestamp":1178650717000},"page":"1825-1833","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Human locomotion on ice: the evolution of ice-skating energetics through history"],"prefix":"10.1242","volume":"210","author":[{"given":"Federico","family":"Formenti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human Movement,Manchester Metropolitan University Cheshire, Hassall Road, Alsager,Stoke-on-Trent, ST7 2HL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alberto E.","family":"Minetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Biophysical and Clinical Research into Human Movement,Manchester Metropolitan University Cheshire, Hassall Road, Alsager,Stoke-on-Trent, ST7 2HL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"237","reference":[{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ardigo\u0300, L. P., Goosey-Tolfrey, V. L. and Minetti, A. E. (2005). Biomechanics and energetics of basketball wheelchairs evolution. Int. J. Sports Med.26,388-396.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2004-821316"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bastien, G. J., Willems, P. A., Schepens, B. and Heglund, N. C. (2005). Effect of load and speed on the energetic cost of human walking. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.94, 76-83.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-004-1286-z"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF3","unstructured":"Brown, N. (1959). Ice Skating, A History. London: Nicholas Kaye."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capelli, C., Schena, F., Zamparo, P., Dal Monte, A., Faina, M. and di Prampero, P. (1998). Energetics of best performances in track cycling. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.30,614-624.","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-199804000-00021"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cavagna, G. A. and Kaneko, M. (1977). Mechanical work and efficiency in level walking and running. J. Physiol.268,467-481.","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1977.sp011866"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF6","unstructured":"CIA (2005). The World Factbook. http:\/\/www.cia.gov\/cia\/publications\/factbook\/:Central Intelligence Agency."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davies, C. T. M. (1981). Physiology of ultra-long distance running. In Physiological Chemistry of Exercise and Training. Vol. 13 (ed. J. R. Portsman), pp. 77-84. Basel: Karger.","DOI":"10.1159\/000397196"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Koning, J. J., de Groot, G. and van Ingen Schenau, G. J.(1992). Ice friction during speed skating. J. Biomech.25,565-571.","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(92)90099-M"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Koning, J. J., Houdijk, H., de Groot, G. and Bobbert, M. F. (2000). From biomechanical theory to application in top sports: the klapskate story. J. Biomech.33,1225-1229.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(00)00063-4"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF10","unstructured":"di Prampero, P. E. (1985). La Locomozione Umana su Terra, in Acqua, in Aria. Milan:Edi.Ermes."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"di Prampero, P. E. (1986). The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in water. Int. J. Sports Med.7,55-72.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2008-1025736"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"di Prampero, P. E., Cortili, G., Mognoni, P. and Saibene, F.(1976). Energy cost of speed skating and efficiency of work against air resistance. J. Appl. Physiol.40,584-591.","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1976.40.4.584"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Formenti, F., Ardigo\u0300, L. P. and Minetti, A. E.(2005). Human locomotion on snow: determinants of economy and speed of skiing across the ages. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.272,1561-1569.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2005.3121"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Foster, C., Rundell, K. W., Snyder, A. C., Stray-Gundersen, J.,Kemkers, G., Thometz, N., Broker, J. and Knapp, E.(1999). Evidence for restricted muscle blood flow during speed skating. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.31,1433-1440.","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-199910000-00012"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF15","unstructured":"Goubitz, O. (2000). Nederland's oudste schaats?In Kouwe Drukte. Vol. 9, pp.4-5. Warmond, The Netherlands: de Kouwe Drukte."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hausswirth, C., Bigard, A. and Lechevelier, J.(1997). The Cosmed K4 telemetry system as an accurate device for oxygen uptake measurement during exercise. Int. J. Sports Med.18,449-453.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-972662"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF17","unstructured":"Heathcote, J. M., Tebbutt, C. G. and Maxwell, T.(1892). Skating. London: Longmans Green and Co."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Houdijk, H., Heijnsdijk, E. A., de Koning, J. J., de Groot, G. and Bobbert, M. F. (2000a). Physiological responses that account for the increased power output in speed skating using klapskates. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.83,283-288.","DOI":"10.1007\/s004210000301"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Houdijk, H., de Koning, J. J., de Groot, G., Bobbert, M. F. and van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (2000b). Push-off mechanics in speed skating with conventional skates and klapskates. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.32,635-641.","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-200003000-00013"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Houdijk, H., Wijker, A. J., de Koning, J. J., Bobbert, M. F. and de Groot, G. (2001). Ice friction in speed skating: can klapskates reduce ice frictional loss? Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.33,499-504.","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-200103000-00025"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF21","unstructured":"Jacobi, H. W. (1976). De Nederlandse Glissen: Middeleeuwse Archeologie. The Netherlands: H. W. Jacobi."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF22","unstructured":"Kobayashi, T. (1973). Studies of the properties of ice in speed skating rinks. Ashrae J.73, 51-56."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luik, H. (2000). Luust uisud Eesti arheoloogilises leiumaterjalis. Eesti Arheoloogia Ajakiri4,129-150.","DOI":"10.3176\/arch.2000.2.03"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marsh, R. (1999). How muscles deal with real-world loads: the influence of length trajectory on muscle performance. J. Exp. Biol.202,3377-3385.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.23.3377"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minetti, A. E. (2004). Passive tools for enhancing muscle-driven motion and locomotion. J. Exp. Biol.207,1265-1272.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.00886"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Minetti, A. E., Pinkerton, J. and Zamparo, P.(2001). From bipedalism to bicyclism: evolution in energetics and biomechanics of historic bicycles. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.268,1351-1360.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2001.1662"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF27","unstructured":"Muhonen, T. (2005). Bone skates. In Historia. Vol. 1, pp.42-45. Forssa, Finland: Storia Kustannus Oy."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF28","unstructured":"Munro, R. (1893). Notes on ancient bone skates. Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot.28,185-197."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nobes, K. J., Montgomery, D. L., Pearsall, D. J., Turcotte, R. A., Lefebvre, R. and Whittom, F. (2003). A comparison of skating economy on-ice and on the skating treadmill. Can. J. Appl. Physiol.28,1-11.","DOI":"10.1139\/h03-001"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pandolf, K. B., Haisman, M. F. and Goldman, R. F.(1976). Metabolic energy expenditure and terrain coefficients for walking on snow. Ergonomics19,683-690.","DOI":"10.1080\/00140137608931583"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF31","unstructured":"Roes, A. (1963). Bone and Antler Objects from the Frisian Terp-mounds. Haarlem: H. D. Tjeenk Willink and Zoon, N. V."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF32","unstructured":"Saltin, B. (1973). Oxygen transport by the circulatory system during exercise in man. In Limiting Factors of Physical Performance (ed. J. Keul), pp.235-252. Stuttgart: George Thieme."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1982). The influence of air friction in speed skating. J. Biomech.15,449-458.","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(82)90081-1"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF34","unstructured":"van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1998). The klapskate:an example of intermuscular coordination. Eur. J. Morphol.36,269."},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Ingen Schenau, G. J., de Groot, G., Scheurs, A. W., Meester,H. and de Koning, J. J. (1996). A new skate allowing powerful plantar flexions improves preformance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.28,531-535.","DOI":"10.1097\/00005768-199604000-00020"},{"key":"2021042505394916200_REF36","unstructured":"Wilkie, D. R. (1980). Equations describing power input by humans as a function of duration of exercise. In Exercise Bioenergetics and Gas Exchange (ed. B. J. Whipp), pp. 75-80. North Holland:Elsevier."}],"container-title":["Journal of Experimental Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/210\/10\/1825\/1258553\/1825.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/210\/10\/1825\/1258553\/1825.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]],"date-time":"2023-05-11T19:07:44Z","timestamp":1683832064000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article\/210\/10\/1825\/9485\/Human-locomotion-on-ice-the-evolution-of-ice"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2007,5,15]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,5,15]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1242\/jeb.002162","relation":{},"ISSN":["1477-9145","0022-0949"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1477-9145","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0022-0949","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2007,5,15]]}}}