{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,21]],"date-time":"2025-09-21T18:31:21Z","timestamp":1758479481328},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"The Company of Biologists","issue":"21","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,11,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title><jats:p>Flight power varies in a U-shaped relationship with flight speed, requiring the modulation of flight muscle power in order to meet these changing power demands. The power output of the pectoralis muscle can potentially be modulated by changing strain trajectory and the relative timing and intensity of muscle activity. Pectoralis muscle length change and activity patterns were recorded in budgerigars Melopsitaccus undulatus and zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata at a range of flight speeds using sonomicrometry and electromyography (EMG). The pectoralis muscles in these species contain a single muscle fibre type. Therefore, the power output is entirely determined by muscle activity and strain trajectory, rather than recruitment of motor units with different contractile properties as in many other vertebrate muscle systems. Relative EMG intensity, wingbeat frequency and muscle strain varied in an approximately U-shaped relationship with flight speed. The shape of the length trajectory varied with flight speed in budgerigars, with the proportion of the cycle spent shortening being lowest at intermediate flight speeds. In zebra finch pectoralis muscle the shape of the length trajectory did not vary significantly with flight speed. In both species the observed changes in muscle recruitment and length trajectory are consistent with meeting flight power requirements that vary in a U-shaped pattern with speed. Both species utilised intermittent flight, tending to spend relatively less time flapping at intermediate flight speeds. This supports the idea that intermittent flight is used as a simple power modulation strategy. However, the idea that intermittent flight serves to maintain a `fixed gear' is over-simplistic and fails to recognise the plasticity in performance at the level of the muscle. Intermittent flight is only one component of a complex power modulation strategy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.006296","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,10,19]],"date-time":"2007-10-19T15:00:53Z","timestamp":1192806053000},"page":"3789-3797","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Modulation of pectoralis muscle function in budgerigars<i>Melopsitaccus undulatus<\/i>and zebra finches<i>Taeniopygia guttata<\/i>in response to changing flight speed"],"prefix":"10.1242","volume":"210","author":[{"given":"David J.","family":"Ellerby","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Integrative and Comparative Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Graham N.","family":"Askew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Integrative and Comparative Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"237","reference":[{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander, R. M. (2005). Mechanics of animal movement. Curr. Biol.15,R616-R619.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2005.08.016"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altringham, J. D. and Johnston, I. A. (1990). Modelling muscle power output in a swimming fish. J. Exp. Biol.148,395-402.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.148.1.395"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altringham, J. D. and Ellerby, D. J. (1999). Fish swimming: patterns in muscle function. J. Exp. Biol.202,3397-3403.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.23.3397"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Askew, G. N. and Ellerby, D. J. (2007). The mechanical power requirements of avian flight. Biol. Lett.3,445-448.","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2007.0182"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Askew, G. N. and Marsh, R. L. (1997). The effects of length trajectory on the mechanical power output of mouse skeletal muscles. J. Exp. Biol.200,3119-3131.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.200.24.3119"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Askew, G. N. and Marsh, R. L. (1998). Optimal shortening velocity (V\/Vmax) of skeletal muscle during cyclical contractions: length\u2013force effects and velocity-dependent activation and deactivation. J. Exp. Biol.201,1527-1540.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.201.10.1527"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Askew, G. N. and Marsh, R. L. (2001). The mechanical power output of the pectoralis muscle of blue-breasted quail(Coturnix chinensis): the in vivo length cycle and its implications for muscle performance. J. Exp. Biol.204,3587-3600.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.204.21.3587"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biewener, A. A., Dial, K. P. and Goslow, G. E.(1992). Pectoralis muscle force and power output during flight in the starling. J. Exp. Biol.164, 1-18.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.164.1.1"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bundle, M. W., Hansen, K. S. and Dial, K. P.(2007). Does the metabolic rate\u2013flight speed relationship vary among geometrically similar birds of different mass? J. Exp. Biol.210,1075-1083.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02727"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF10","unstructured":"Cavagna, G. A., Heglund, N. C. and Taylor, C. R.(1977). Mechanical work in terrestrial locomotion II. Basic mechanisms for minimizing energy expenditure. Am. J. Physiol.233,R243-R261."},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ellerby, D. J. and Askew, G. N. (2007). Modulation of flight muscle power output in budgerigars Melopsittacus undulatus and zebra finches Taeniopygia guttata: in vitro muscle performance. J. Exp. Biol.210,3780-3788.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.006288"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF12","unstructured":"Ellerby, D. J. and Marsh, R. L. (2006). The energetic costs of trunk and distal-limb loading during walking and running in guinea fowl Numida meleagris: II. Muscle energy use as indicated by blood flow. J. Exp. Biol.209,2064-2075."},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF13","unstructured":"Ellerby, D. J., Spierts, I. L. Y. and Altringham, J. D.(2001). Slow muscle power output of yellow- and silver-phase European eels (Anguilla anguilla L.): changes in muscle performance prior to migration. J. Exp. Biol.204,1369-1379."},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabaldon, A. M., Nelson, F. E. and Roberts, T. J.(2004). Mechanical function of two ankle extensors in wild turkeys: shifts from energy production to energy absorption during incline versus decline running. J. Exp. Biol.207,2277-2288.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01006"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girgenrath, M. and Marsh, R. L. (1999). Power output of sound-producing muscles in the tree frogs Hyla versicolorand Hyla chrysoscelis.J. Exp. Biol.202,3225-3237.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.22.3225"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hedrick, T. L., Tobalske, B. W. and Blewener, A. A.(2003). How cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) modulate pectoralis power output across flight speeds. J. Exp. Biol.206,1363-1378.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.00272"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James, R. S., Altringham, J. D. and Goldspink, D. F.(1995). The mechanical properties of slow and fast skeletal muscles of the mouse in relation to their locomotory function. J. Exp. Biol.198,491-502.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.198.2.491"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jayne, B. C. and Lauder, G. V. (1994). How swimming fish use slow and fast muscle fibers \u2013 implications for models of vertebrate muscle recruitment. J. Comp. Physiol. A175,123-131.","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00217443"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Josephson, R. K. (1985). Mechanical power output from striated-muscle during cyclic contraction. J. Exp. Biol.114,493-512.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.114.1.493"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Josephson, R. K. (1989). Power output from skeletal muscle during linear and sinusoidal shortening. J. Exp. Biol.147,533-537.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.147.1.533"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Josephson, R. K. (1993). Contraction dynamics and power output of skeletal muscle. Annu. Rev. Physiol.55,527-546.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ph.55.030193.002523"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Josephson, R. K. (1999). Dissecting muscle power output. J. Exp. Biol.202,3369-3375.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.23.3369"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Josephson, R. K. and Stokes, D. R. (1989). Strain, muscle length and work output in a crab muscle. J. Exp. Biol.145,45-61.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.145.1.45"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marsh, R. L. (1999a). Contractile properties of muscles used in sound production and locomotion in two species of gray tree frog. J. Exp. Biol.202,3215-3223.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.22.3215"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marsh, R. L. (1999b). How muscles deal with real-world loads: the influence of length trajectory on muscle performance. J. Exp. Biol.202,3377-3385.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.23.3377"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rayner, J. M. V. (1985). Bounding and undulating flight in birds. J. Theor. Biol.117, 47-77.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5193(85)80164-8"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rayner, J. M. V. (1999). Estimating power curves of flying vertebrates. J. Exp. Biol.202,3449-3461.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.23.3449"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, T. J. and Scales, J. A. (2002). Mechanical power output during running accelerations in wild turkeys. J. Exp. Biol.205,1485-1494.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.205.10.1485"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, T. J., Marsh, R. L., Weyand, P. G. and Taylor, C. R. (1997). Muscular force in running turkeys: the economy of minimizing work. Science275,1113-1115.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.275.5303.1113"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosser, B. W. C. and George, J. C. (1986). The avian pectoralis: histochemical characterization and distribution of muscle fiber types. Can. J. Zool.64,1174-1185.","DOI":"10.1139\/z86-176"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stokes, D. R. and Josephson, R. K. (1988). The mechanical power output of a crab respiratory muscle. J. Exp. Biol.140,287-299.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.140.1.287"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tobalske, B. W. (1995). Neuromuscular control and kinematics of intermittent flight in the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). J. Exp. Biol.198,1259-1273.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.198.6.1259"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tobalske, B. W. and Dial, K. P. (1994). Neuromuscular control and kinematics of intermittent flight in budgerigars(Melopsittacus undulatus). J. Exp. Biol.187, 1-18.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.187.1.1"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tobalske, B. W., Puccinelli, L. A. and Sheridan, D. C.(2005). Contractile activity of the pectoralis in the zebra finch according to mode and velocity of flap-bounding flight. J. Exp. Biol.208,2895-2901.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01734"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tucker, V. A. (1968). Respiratory exchange and evaporative water loss in flying budgerigar. J. Exp. Biol.48,67-87.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.48.1.67"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Videler, J. J. and Weihs, D. (1982). Energetic advantages of burst and coast swimming of fish at high speeds. J. Exp. Biol.97,169-178.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.97.1.169"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wakeling, J. M. (2004). Motor units are recruited in a task-dependent fashion during locomotion. J. Exp. Biol.207,3883-3890.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01223"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward, S., Moller, U., Rayner, J. M. V., Jackson, D. M., Bilo,D., Nachtigall, W. and Speakman, J. R. (2001). Metabolic power, mechanical power and efficiency during wind tunnel flight by the European starling Sturnus vulgaris.J. Exp. Biol.204,3311-3322.","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.204.19.3311"},{"key":"2021042511091977700_REF39","unstructured":"Weis-Fogh, T. and Alexander, R. McN. (1977). The sustained power output from skeletal muscle. In Scale Effects in Animal Locomotion (ed. T. J. Pedley), pp.511-525. London: Academic Press."}],"container-title":["Journal of Experimental Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/210\/21\/3789\/1260354\/3789.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/210\/21\/3789\/1260354\/3789.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,14]],"date-time":"2023-05-14T12:54:00Z","timestamp":1684068840000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article\/210\/21\/3789\/17210\/Modulation-of-pectoralis-muscle-function-in"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2007,11,1]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,11,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1242\/jeb.006296","relation":{},"ISSN":["1477-9145","0022-0949"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1477-9145","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0022-0949","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2007,11,1]]}}}