{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T01:36:58Z","timestamp":1773365818810,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"The Company of Biologists","issue":"24","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,12,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title><jats:p>Given the importance of thoraco-lumbar spine movements in the locomotion of mammals, it is surprising that in vivo three-dimensional (3-D) data on the intervertebral movement of the mammalian thoraco-lumbar vertebral column during symmetrical gaits is limited to horses and dogs. To test whether kinematic patterns similar to those published for these cursorial species are also present during a contrasting mode of quadrupedalism, we quantified thoraco-lumbar intervertebral movements, the resulting pelvic displacements and relative femoral movements during the trot-like steady-state suspensory quadrupedal locomotion of the two-toed sloth (Xenarthra, Choloepus didactylus). Scientific rotoscoping, a new, non-invasive approach that combines synchronous biplanar high speed X-ray videos and the reconstruction of skeletal elements from computed tomography bone scans, was used to quantify 3-D kinematics. An analysis of vertebral anatomy and epaxial muscle topography suggests that the thoraco-lumbar spine of sloths is well suited to producing lateral bending and long-axis rotation, but limits powerful sagittal extension. Sloths exhibit complex 3-D movements in the thoraco-lumbar spine that are comparable to those observed in other arboreal quadrupedal mammals. Monophasic lateral bending and long-axis rotation, biphasic sagittal bending and maximal amplitude of sagittal bending at the lumbo-sacral joint were also found in other quadruped mammals and may represent general aspects of mammalian symmetric gaits. Maximal amplitude of lateral bending and long-axis rotation vary in regard to the vertebral level. It is suggested that a cranio-caudal pattern of angular deflections of the spine results from the out-of-phase movement of diagonal forelimbs and hindlimbs in other walking gaits, because it is not evident in the trot-like locomotion analyzed here. The analysis also illustrates the difficulties that arise when lumbar movement is deduced from intervertebral joint morphology alone.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.047647","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,11,26]],"date-time":"2010-11-26T17:47:48Z","timestamp":1290793668000},"page":"4278-4290","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Functional morphology and three-dimensional kinematics of the thoraco-lumbar region of the spine of the two-toed sloth"],"prefix":"10.1242","volume":"213","author":[{"given":"John A.","family":"Nyakatura","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universit\u00e4t, D-07743 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin S.","family":"Fischer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut f\u00fcr Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universit\u00e4t, D-07743 Jena, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"237","reference":[{"key":"2021042506030108600_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.193.1.255","article-title":"Hindlimb kinematics during terrestrial locomotion in a salamander (Dicamptodon tenebrosius)","volume":"193","author":"Ashley-Ross","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. 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