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Such conflict, as typified by cardiovascular responses to cold water immersion in humans, has been proposed to result from exercise-related activation of cardiac sympathetic fibers to increase heart rate, combined with depth-related changes in parasympathetic tone to decrease heart rate. After reviewing the marine mammal literature and evaluating heart rate profiles of diving California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), we present an alternative interpretation of heart rate regulation that de-emphasizes the concept of autonomic conflict and the risk of morbid arrhythmias in marine mammals. We hypothesize that: (1) both the sympathetic cardiac accelerator fibers and the peripheral sympathetic vasomotor fibers are activated during dives even without exercise, and their activities are elevated at the lowest heart rates in a dive when vasoconstriction is maximal, (2) in diving animals, parasympathetic cardiac tone via the vagus nerve dominates over sympathetic cardiac tone during all phases of the dive, thus producing the bradycardia, (3) adjustment in vagal activity, which may be affected by many inputs, including exercise, is the primary regulator of heart rate and heart rate fluctuations during diving, and (4) heart beat fluctuations (benign arrhythmias) are common in marine mammals. Consistent with the literature and with these hypotheses, we believe that the generation of morbid arrhythmias because of exercise or stress during dives is unlikely in marine mammals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.146779","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,19]],"date-time":"2017-04-19T17:25:18Z","timestamp":1492622718000},"page":"1372-1381","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Heart rate regulation in diving sea lions: the vagus nerve rules"],"prefix":"10.1242","volume":"220","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1556-770X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul J.","family":"Ponganis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Marine Biotechnology & Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Birgitte I.","family":"McDonald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael S.","family":"Tift","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Marine Biotechnology & Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cassondra L.","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Marine Biotechnology & Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"237","reference":[{"key":"2021042512002628700_JEB146779C1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.200.15.2083","article-title":"Heart rates of northern elephant seals diving at sea and resting on the beach","volume":"200","author":"Andrews","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. 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