{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T15:28:18Z","timestamp":1791473298406,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"The Company of Biologists","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,11]],"date-time":"2018-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1544486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.biologists.com\/user-licence-1-1\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100011446","name":"Marine Technology Society","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100011446","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008778","name":"Florida Atlantic University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008778","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,15]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Cartilaginous shark skeletons experience axial deformation at the intervertebral joints, but also within the mineralized cartilaginous centrum, which can compress to between 3% and 8% of its original length in a free-swimming shark. Previous studies have focused on shark centra mechanical properties when loaded to failure; our goal was to determine properties when compressed to a biologically relevant strain. We selected vertebrae from six shark species and from the anterior and posterior regions of the vertebral column. Centra were X-radiographed to measure double cone proportion and apex angles, and were mechanically tested at three displacement rates to 4% strain. We determined the variation in toughness and stiffness of vertebral centra among shark species and ontogenetic stages, testing strain rates, and compared anterior and posterior regions of the vertebral column. Our results suggest that toughness and stiffness, which are positively correlated, may be operating in concert to support lateral body undulations, while providing efficient energy transmission and return in these swift-swimming apex predators. We analyzed the contribution of double cone proportion and apex angle to centra mechanical behavior. We found that the greatest stiffness and toughness were in the youngest sharks and from the posterior body, and there was significant interspecific variation. Significant inverse correlations were found between mechanical properties and double cone apex angle suggesting that properties can be partially attributed to the angle forming the double cone apex. These comparative data highlight the importance of understanding cartilaginous skeleton mechanics under a wide variety of loading conditions representative of swimming behaviors seen in the wild.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.188318","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,23]],"date-time":"2018-10-23T05:48:12Z","timestamp":1540273692000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Mechanical behavior of shark vertebral centra at biologically relevant strains"],"prefix":"10.1242","volume":"221","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1759-0604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Danielle N.","family":"Ingle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lisa J.","family":"Natanson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Apex Predators Program, National Marine Fisheries Service, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3622-7114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marianne E.","family":"Porter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"237","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1359\/jbmr.2002.17.9.1621","article-title":"Mechanical properties of adult vertebral cancellous bone: correlation with collagen intermolecular cross-links","volume":"17","author":"Banse","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Bone Miner. Res."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C2","first-page":"399","article-title":"Age determination and validation in chondrichthyan fishes","volume-title":"Biology of Sharks and Their Relatives","author":"Cailliet","year":"2004"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C4","author":"Compagno","year":"2001"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C5","volume-title":"Sharks of the Order Carcharhiniformes","author":"Compagno","year":"2003"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400853724","volume-title":"The Mechanical Adaptations of Bones","author":"Currey","year":"1984"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3285","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.202.23.3285","article-title":"The design of mineralized hard tissues for their mechanical functions","volume":"202","author":"Currey","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.zool.2006.03.002","article-title":"Mineralized cartilage in the skeleton of chondricthyan fishes","volume":"109","author":"Dean","year":"2006","journal-title":"Zool"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02041246","article-title":"Multiple primatic calcium phosphate layers in the jaws of present-day sharks (Chondrichthyes: Selachii","volume":"47","author":"Dingerkus","year":"1991","journal-title":"Experimentia"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02435","article-title":"Convergent evolution in mechanical design of lamnid sharks and tunas","volume":"429","author":"Donley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.10412","article-title":"Evolution of high-performance swimming in sharks: transformations of the musculotendinous system from subcarangiform to thunniform swimmers","volume":"267","author":"Gemballa","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Morphol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1080\/00028487.2013.815658","article-title":"Age and growth of the common thresher shark in the western North Atlantic Ocean","volume":"142","author":"Gervelis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trans. Am. Fish. Soc."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/faf.12243","article-title":"Evidence for systemic age underestimation in shark and ray ageing studies","author":"Harry","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fish Fisheries"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2307\/3593136","article-title":"The sexually dimorphic cephalofoil of bonnethead sharks, Sphyrna tiburo","volume":"209","author":"Kajiura","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biol. Bull."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C17","first-page":"1","article-title":"Form, function, and locomotory habits in fish","volume-title":"Fish Physiology: Locomotion","author":"Lindsey","year":"1978"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/36.6.678","article-title":"The importance of body stiffness in undulatory propulsion","volume":"36","author":"Long","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. Zool."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.192.1.129","article-title":"Undulatory swimming: how traveling waves are produced and modulated in sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus)","volume":"192","author":"Long","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.4031\/MTSJ.45.4.4","article-title":"Inspired by sharks: a biomimetic skeleton for the propulsive tail of an aquatic robot","volume":"45","author":"Long","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mar. Technol. Soc. J."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2293","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.198.11.2293","article-title":"Mechanical control of swimming speed: stiffness and axial wave form in undulating fish models","volume":"198","author":"McHenry","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1071\/MF14127","article-title":"Age and growth of the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, in the western North Atlantic Ocean","volume":"66","author":"Natanson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C24","first-page":"116","article-title":"Age and growth estimates for the dusky shark, Carcharhinus obscurus, in the western North Atlantic Ocean","volume":"93","author":"Natanson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Fish Bull."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s10641-006-9127-z","article-title":"Validated age and growth estimates for the shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrhincus, in the North Atlantic Ocean","volume":"77","author":"Natanson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Biol. Fish."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1440","DOI":"10.1071\/MF17279","article-title":"Age and growth of sharks: do vertebral band pairs record age?","volume":"69","author":"Natanson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C27","first-page":"266","article-title":"Validated growth of the porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) in the western North Atlantic Ocean","volume":"100","author":"Natanson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Fish Bull."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C28","first-page":"877","article-title":"Vertebral morphology, dentition, age, growth, and ecology of the large lamniform shark Cardabiodon ricki","volume":"60","author":"Newberry","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Palaeontol. Pol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e67380","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0067380","article-title":"Thresher sharks use tail-slaps as a hunting stategy","volume":"8","author":"Oliver","year":"2013","journal-title":"PloS ONE"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.1100030305","article-title":"Biomechanical time-tolerance of fresh cadaveric human spine specimens","volume":"3","author":"Panjabi","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Orthop. Res."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1002\/jmor.10803","article-title":"Vertebrae in compression: mechanical behavior of arches and centra in the gray smooth-hound shark (Mustelus californicus)","volume":"271","author":"Porter","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Morphol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2920","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02325","article-title":"Mechanical properties and biochemical composition of mineralized vertebral cartilage in seven elasmobranch species (Chondrichthyes)","volume":"209","author":"Porter","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3319","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.006189","article-title":"The contribution of mineral to the mechanical properties of vertebral cartilage from the smooth-hound cartilage Mustelus californicus","volume":"210","author":"Porter","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.zool.2013.10.007","article-title":"Built for speed: strain in the cartilaginous vertebral column of sharks","volume":"117","author":"Porter","year":"2014","journal-title":"Zool"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2908","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.135251","article-title":"Automatic control: the vertebral column of dogfish sharks behaves as a continuously variable transmission with smoothly shifting functions","volume":"219","author":"Porter","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1921.0008","article-title":"On the calcification of the vertebral centra in sharks and rays","volume":"210","author":"Ridewood","year":"1921","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Containing Papers Biol. Character"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1109\/48.757275","article-title":"Review of fish swimming modes","volume":"24","author":"Sfakiotakis","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C38","first-page":"627","article-title":"Age and growth of the blue shark, (Prionace glauca) in the North Atlantic Ocean","volume":"101","author":"Skomal","year":"2003","journal-title":"FIsh Bull."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(91)90022-F","article-title":"Physical and mechanical properties of calf lumbosacral trabecular bone","volume":"24","author":"Swartz","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/17.2.343","article-title":"Body form and locomotion in sharks","volume":"17","author":"Thomson","year":"1977","journal-title":"Am. Zool."},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1126\/science.137.3534.984-a","article-title":"Calcium and other ions in blood and skeleton of Nicaraguan fresh-water shark","volume":"137","author":"Urist","year":"1962","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C42","volume-title":"Life's Devices","author":"Vogel","year":"1988"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C43","volume-title":"Comparative Biomechanics: Life's Physical World","author":"Vogel","year":"2003"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C44","volume-title":"Mechanical Designs in Organisms","author":"Wainwright","year":"1976"},{"key":"2021061411332754700_JEB188318C45","first-page":"1","article-title":"Hydrodynamics and energetics of fish propulsion","volume":"190","author":"Webb","year":"1975","journal-title":"Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can."}],"container-title":["Journal of Experimental Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.188318","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.188318\/2079918\/jeb188318.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.188318\/2042271\/jeb_188318v1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.188318\/2079918\/jeb188318.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T21:14:32Z","timestamp":1775250872000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article\/221\/24\/jeb188318\/20570\/Mechanical-behavior-of-shark-vertebral-centra-at"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,12]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,15]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1242\/jeb.188318","relation":{},"ISSN":["1477-9145","0022-0949"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1477-9145","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0022-0949","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,12]]},"article-number":"jeb188318"}}