{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]],"date-time":"2026-02-27T21:32:31Z","timestamp":1772227951630,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"The Company of Biologists","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]],"date-time":"2020-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577836800000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/www.biologists.com\/user-licence-1-1\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BL 236\/28-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BL 236\/28-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000646","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science London","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["#10252610"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#10252610"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000646","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002917","name":"Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002917","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001697","name":"Keio University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001697","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Across a wide range of Froude speeds, non-human primates such as macaques prefer to use grounded and aerial running when locomoting bipedally. Both gaits are characterized by bouncing kinetics of the center of mass. On the other hand, a discontinuous change from pendular to bouncing kinetics occurs in human locomotion. To clarify the mechanism underlying these differences in bipedal gait mechanics between humans and non-human primates, we investigated the influence of gait on joint kinematics in the legs and trunk of three macaques crossing an experimental track. The coordination of movement was compared with observations available for primates. Compared to human running, macaque leg retraction cannot merely be produced by hip extension, but needs to be supported by substantial knee flexion. As a result, despite quasi-elastic whole-leg operation, the macaque's knee showed only minor rebound behavior. Ankle extension resembled that observed during human running. Unlike human running and independent of gait, torsion of the trunk represents a rather conservative feature in primates, and pelvic axial rotation added to step length. Pelvic lateral lean during grounded running by macaques (compliant leg) and human walking (stiff leg) depends on gait dynamics at the same Froude speed. The different coordination between the thorax and pelvis in the sagittal plane as compared to human runners indicates different bending modes of the spine. Morphological adaptations in non-human primates to quadrupedal locomotion may prevent human-like operation of the leg and limit exploitation of quasi-elastic leg operation despite running dynamics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.225532","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,7]],"date-time":"2020-12-07T21:31:32Z","timestamp":1607376692000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Trunk and leg kinematics of grounded and aerial running in bipedal macaques"],"prefix":"10.1242","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6751-5621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reinhard","family":"Blickhan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Science of Motion, Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena 07749, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9300-4056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuel","family":"Andrada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Zoology and Evolutionary Research, Jena 07743, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7849-1936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eishi","family":"Hirasaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1697-9263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naomichi","family":"Ogihara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"237","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.148312","article-title":"Increasing trunk flexion transforms human leg function into that of birds despite different leg morphology","volume":"220","author":"Aminiaghdam","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C2","volume-title":"A New Model of the Human Trunk Mechanics in Walking","author":"Andrada","year":"2008"},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3906","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.085399","article-title":"Adjustments of global and local hindlimb properties during terrestrial locomotion of the common quail (Coturnix coturnix)","volume":"216","author":"Andrada","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20141405","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2014.1405","article-title":"Trunk orientation causes asymmetries in leg function in small bird terrestrial locomotion","volume":"281","author":"Andrada","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2020.110227","article-title":"Low leg compliance permits grounded running at speeds where the inverted pendulum model gets airborne","volume":"494","author":"Andrada","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.30371","volume-title":"The Bird: Its Form and Function","author":"Beebe","year":"1906"},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v031.i10","article-title":"CircStat: a Matlab toolbox for circular statistics","volume":"31","author":"Berens","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"jeb178897","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.178897","article-title":"Global dynamics of bipedal macaques during grounded and aerial running","volume":"221","author":"Blickhan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2007.05.017","article-title":"Coordination of leg swing, thorax rotations, and pelvis rotations during gait: the organisation of total body angular momentum","volume":"27","author":"Bruijn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.21037\/jtd.2017.05.34","article-title":"A general introduction to adjustment for multiple comparisons","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Dis."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02668","article-title":"Running stability is enhanced by a proximo-distal gradient in joint neuromechanical control","volume":"210","author":"Daley","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.10112","article-title":"Segment and joint angles of hind limb during bipedal and quadrupedal walking of the bonobo (Pan paniscus)","volume":"119","author":"D'Ao\u00fbt","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Anthropol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21484","article-title":"Three-dimensional kinematics of capuchin monkey bipedalism","volume":"145","author":"Demes","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Anthropol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04794.x","article-title":"Bipedal locomotion: effects of speed, size and limb posture in birds and humans","volume":"224","author":"Gatesy","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Zool."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/0141-5425(87)90020-3","article-title":"Energy transfers in the spinal engine","volume":"9","author":"Gracovetsky","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(02)00183-5","article-title":"Joint stiffness of the ankle and the knee in running","volume":"35","author":"G\u00fcnther","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1007\/s00285-004-0269-3","article-title":"Human leg design: optimal axial alignment under constraints","volume":"48","author":"G\u00fcnther","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Math. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsb.3.3.242","article-title":"Upper extremity function in running. II: angular momentum considerations","volume":"3","author":"Hinrichs","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.12.024","article-title":"Changes in axial stiffness of the trunk as a function of walking speed","volume":"39","author":"Kubo","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2011.09.021","article-title":"A model-experiment comparison of system dynamics for human walking and running","volume":"292","author":"Lipfert","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1177\/027836499000900206","article-title":"Passive dynamic walking","volume":"9","author":"McGeer","year":"1990","journal-title":"Int. J. Rob. Res."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(97)00038-6","article-title":"The biomechanics of running","volume":"7","author":"Novacheck","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2007.04.004","article-title":"Ground-reaction-force profiles of bipedal walking in bipedally trained Japanese monkeys","volume":"53","author":"Ogihara","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hum. Evol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.20986","article-title":"Development of an anatomically based whole-body musculoskeletal model of the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)","volume":"139","author":"Ogihara","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Anthropol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2009.11.009","article-title":"Three-dimensional musculoskeletal kinematics during bipedal locomotion in the Japanese macaque, reconstructed based on an anatomical model-matching method","volume":"58","author":"Ogihara","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hum. Evol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2018.09.001","article-title":"Bipedal gait versatility in the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata)","volume":"125","author":"Ogihara","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hum. Evol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1537\/ase1911.93.327","article-title":"Range of passive flexion and extension of hindlimb joints in the Japanese macaque","volume":"93","author":"Okada","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Anthropol. Soc. Nippon"},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2015.05.012","article-title":"Three-dimensional kinematics of the pelvis and hind limbs in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and human bipedal walking","volume":"86","author":"O'Neill","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hum. Evol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.024927","article-title":"Control and function of arm swing in human walking and running","volume":"212","author":"Pontzer","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2013.10.002","article-title":"Bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion in chimpanzees","volume":"66","author":"Pontzer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hum. Evol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2015.11.014","article-title":"The coordinated movement of the spine and pelvis during running","volume":"45","author":"Preece","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hum. Movement Sci."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37549-9","article-title":"Axial thorax-pelvis coordination during gait is not predictive of apparent trunk stiffness","volume":"9","author":"Prins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.127910","article-title":"Minimizing the cost of locomotion with inclined trunk predicts crouched leg kinematics of small birds at realistic levels of elastic recoil","volume":"219","author":"Rode","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2548","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02792","article-title":"Running in ostriches (Struthio camelus): three-dimensional joint axes alignment and joint kinematics","volume":"210","author":"Rubenson","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/S0966-6362(99)00025-9","article-title":"The coordinated movement of the lumbo\u2013pelvic\u2013hip complex during running: a literature review","volume":"10","author":"Schache","year":"1999","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-9457(02)00080-5","article-title":"Three-dimensional angular kinematics of the lumbar spine and pelvis during running","volume":"21","author":"Schache","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Movement Sci."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2006.10.013","article-title":"Kinematics of the transition between walking and running when gradually changing speed","volume":"26","author":"Segers","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00007982","article-title":"Stable operation of an elastic three-segment leg","volume":"84","author":"Seyfarth","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biol. Cybern."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4055","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.070458","article-title":"Comparative intralimb coordination in avian bipedal locomotion","volume":"215","author":"Stoessel","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(89)90183-8","article-title":"Rotational and translational movement features of the pelvis and thorax during adult human locomotion","volume":"22","author":"Stokes","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8416","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9416","article-title":"Surprising trunk rotational capabilities in chimpanzees and implications for bipedal walking proficiency in early hominins","volume":"6","author":"Thompson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Comm."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2018.09.006","article-title":"Step width and frontal plane trunk motion in bipedal chimpanzee and human walking","volume":"125","author":"Thompson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hum. Evol."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.7210\/jrsj.20.247","article-title":"Hints for the construction of anthropomorhic robots based on the functional morphology of human walking","volume":"20","author":"Witte","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Rob. Soc."},{"key":"2021042623090239300_JEB225532C44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(01)00222-6","article-title":"ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate system of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion\u2014part I: ankle, hip, and spine","volume":"35","author":"Wu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biomech."}],"container-title":["Journal of Experimental Biology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.225532","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.225532\/1817076\/jeb225532.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.225532\/2068300\/jeb_225532v1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.225532\/2068300\/jeb_225532v1.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]],"date-time":"2021-05-18T22:05:48Z","timestamp":1621375548000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.biologists.com\/jeb\/article\/doi\/10.1242\/jeb.225532\/267847\/Trunk-and-leg-kinematics-of-grounded-and-aerial"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]]},"references-count":44,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1242\/jeb.225532","relation":{},"ISSN":["1477-9145","0022-0949"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1477-9145","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0022-0949","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,1]]},"article-number":"jeb.225532"}}