{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T08:03:29Z","timestamp":1777881809184,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,3,1]],"date-time":"2009-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1235865600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,3,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Environmental issues are leading to a growing interest in bio-lubricants, which can have similar or even better performance than mineral and synthetic oils. In this work, the biodegradability and toxicity characteristics of ester-based gear oils are presented and their physical, chemical, and wear properties are compared with those of a commercial mineral oil.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>In an earlier work, power loss tests were performed on the FZG test rig, using carburized gears and several different lubricants. The operating temperatures of the oil and of the FZG gearbox wall were measured for different values of the input torque and speed. An energetic model of the FZG test gearbox was developed, taking into account the power loss mechanisms inside the gearbox and the heat flow mechanisms from the gearbox to the surrounding environment. Using this model it was possible to quantify the influence of lubricant formulation on the average friction coefficient between gear teeth.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Gear micropitting tests were performed on the FZG test rig, using carburized gears and different oils. Post-test analysis included the mass loss measurement of the gear, the ferrometric analysis of lubricant samples collected during the tests, and the visual inspection of the gears. The tooth flanks were inspected using surface topography measurements to assess the number and depth of micropits. In comparison with the gear lubricated with mineral oil, the gears lubricated with ester-based oil showed significantly higher mass loss (3\u20144 times higher), smaller number of micropits, and less deep micropits.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>If carefully formulated, biodegradable low-toxicity ester-based gear oils, beside their environmental advantages, enhance gear performance when compared with the mineral lubricant providing (a) lower friction coefficients and lower operating temperatures of gearboxes and (b) lower number of micro-pits (with depths greater than 4 \u03bcm). One of the ester-based gear oils passed the FVA gear micropitting criterion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1243\/13506501jet495","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,3,5]],"date-time":"2009-03-05T02:11:26Z","timestamp":1236219086000},"page":"481-495","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Micropitting of carburized gears lubricated with biodegradable low-toxicity oils"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"223","author":[{"given":"N F R","family":"Cardoso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"INEGI, Campus da FEUP, Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"R C","family":"Martins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INEGI, Campus da FEUP, Porto, Portugal"}]},{"given":"J H O","family":"Seabra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Management, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Weck M., Hurasky-Schonwerth O., Bugiel C. \u2018Service behaviour of PVD-coated gearing lubricated with biodegradable synthetic ester oils\u2019 VDI-Ber. 1 Nr1665 (2002): 677\u2013690"},{"key":"bibr2-13506501JET495","unstructured":"H\u00f6hn B.R., Michaelis K., Vollmer T. \u2018Thermal rating of gear drives: Balance between power loss and heat dissipation\u2019 (October, 1996): AGMA technical paper, 96FTM8."},{"key":"bibr3-13506501JET495","first-page":"603","volume":"21665","author":"Changenet C.","year":"2002","journal-title":"VDI-Ber."},{"key":"bibr4-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Winter H., Michaelis K. \u2018Investigations on the thermal balance of gear drives\u2019. In Proceedings of the 5th World Congress on Theory of machines and mechanisms, 1979, pp. 354\u2013358. (American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME))."},{"key":"bibr5-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castro J., Seabra J. \u2018Coefficient of friction in mixed film lubrication: Gears versus twin-discs\u2019 Proc. IMechE, Part J: J. Engineering Tribology 221 J3 (2007): 461\u2013462","DOI":"10.1243\/13506501JET257"},{"key":"bibr6-13506501JET495","volume-title":"Ball and roller bearings \u2014 theory, design and applications","author":"Eschmann P.","year":"1985"},{"key":"bibr7-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1115\/1.2403727"},{"key":"bibr8-13506501JET495","volume-title":"Tribology research: From model experiment to industrial problem","author":"H\u00f6hn B.-R.","year":"2001"},{"key":"bibr9-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-679X(03)00047-1"},{"key":"bibr10-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.triboint.2005.03.021"},{"key":"bibr11-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Martins R. C., Moura P. S., Seabra J. O. \u2018Power loss in FZG gears: Mineral oil vs. biodegradable ester and carburized steel vs. austempered ductile iron vs. MoS2-Ti coated steel\u2019 VDI-Ber. 2 NR1904 (2005): 1467\u20131486"},{"key":"bibr12-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Martins R. C. New materials, surface coatings and biodegradable lubricants for industrial gears. PhD Thesis, Faculdade de Engenharia, 2008, p. 200, Universidade do Porto, Porto, 2008, p. 200."},{"key":"bibr13-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martins R., Cardoso N., Seabra J. \u2018Gear power loss performance of biodegradable low-toxicity ester-based oils\u2019 Proc. IMechE, Part J: J. Engineering Tribology 222 J3 (2008): 431\u2013440","DOI":"10.1243\/13506501JET345"},{"key":"bibr14-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/00368790010371762"},{"key":"bibr15-13506501JET495","volume-title":"Int. J. Powder Metall.","volume":"391","author":"Lipp K.","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr16-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antoine F., Besson J. M. \u2018Simplified modellization of gear micropitting\u2019 Proc. IMechE, Part G: J. Aerospace Engineering 216 G6 (2002): 291\u2013302","DOI":"10.1243\/095441002321029035"},{"key":"bibr17-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Hohn B. R., Oster P., Schrade U. \u2018Studies on the micropitting resistance of case-carburized gears \u2014 industrial application of the new calculation method\u2019 VDI-Ber. 2 NR1904. 1287\u20131307"},{"key":"bibr18-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Winter H., Oster P. \u2018Influence of the lubricant on pitting and micro pitting (grey staining, frosted areas) resistance of case carburized gears \u2014 test procedures\u2019 (October 1987): AGMA technical paper, 1987, 87 FTM 9."},{"key":"bibr19-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Cardoso N. Mechanical performance of biodegradable, low-toxicity ester-based industrial gear oils (2007) MSc Thesis, Universidade do Porto, Porto, 2007, p. 232."},{"key":"bibr20-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.triboint.2008.05.010"},{"key":"bibr21-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/00368790810902223"},{"key":"bibr22-13506501JET495","first-page":"565","volume":"21665","author":"Joachim F.","year":"2002","journal-title":"VDI-Ber."},{"key":"bibr23-13506501JET495","first-page":"30","volume":"175","author":"Cardis A. B.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Gear Technol."},{"key":"bibr24-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Exxon-Mobil-Corporation. Mobilgear XMP product data sheet, 2007 (cited 18 November 2008), available from http:\/\/www.mobil.com\/Portugal-English\/Lubes\/PDS\/GLXXENINDMOMobilgear_XMP.asp."},{"key":"bibr25-13506501JET495","volume-title":"Physico-chimie des lubrifiants \u2014 analyses et essais","author":"Denis J.","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr26-13506501JET495","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jsl.3000180105"},{"key":"bibr27-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Winter H., Michaelis K. \u2018FZG gear test rig \u2014 description and possibilities\u2019. In Proceedings of the Coordinate European Council Second International Symposium on the Performance Evaluation of Automotive Fuels and Lubricants, 1985."},{"key":"bibr28-13506501JET495","unstructured":"DGMK Information Sheet. Short test procedure for the investigation of the micropitting load capacity of gear lubricants, February 2002 (DGM Publikationen)"},{"key":"bibr29-13506501JET495","unstructured":"Forschungsvereinigung Antriebstechnik E. V. 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