{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T00:46:52Z","timestamp":1777855612826,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2008,8,1]],"date-time":"2008-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1217548800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Med Biogr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In 1800 many European doctors were practitioners of the new midwifery, which improved the safety of childbirth for mothers and their infants. This study explores the role of Dr Gunning S Bedford Jr as an obstetric innovator who promoted the new midwifery in the USA from 1833 to 1870. Two strands of ideas converge to shape Bedford's obstetric instruction. First, Bedford's Catholic faith forbade the destruction of a living child to resolve a difficult birth. Catholic believers and the hierarchy admired Bedford for his care of indigent patients and his opposition to abortion. Second, Bedford's practice of the new midwifery allowed him to challenge the existing standard of care among practitioners. As an educator, through anatomical instruction and clinical training, he provided medical students with the skills necessary to resolve deliveries safely. Thus, he advocated the exclusion of untrained practitioners and midwives from the birth room. Bedford also promoted new forms of intervention, such as the caesarean operation, that would improve the safety of obstetrics in the future. Although his ideals of safe obstetrics were not fully realized in his lifetime, his instruction to students in the new midwifery raised the existing standard of care.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1258\/jmb.2007.007035","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,7,24]],"date-time":"2008-07-24T15:38:42Z","timestamp":1216913922000},"page":"134-143","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Doctor Gunning S Bedford (1806\u201370) and the search for safe obstetric care, 1833\u201370"],"prefix":"10.1258","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Joseph G","family":"Ryan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Dictionary of the American Catholic Hierarchy.","author":"Code JB","year":"1940"},{"key":"bibr2-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Gunning S Bedford was born in Baltimore, Maryland in 1806. He died on 5 September 1870. Bedford was the nephew of Gunning Bedford who was an aide-de-camp to George Washington during the revolution. After the war, the elder Bedford was a framer of the Constitution of the USA and the first Attorney General of Delaware. Later, President Washington appointed him as the USA Judge for the District of Delaware. The younger Bedford distinguished himself in the practice of medicine. In 1836, after his medical education and two teaching appointments, he developed an extensive and lucrative private practice in New York City. From 1840 to 1862 he was a founder and professor of midwifery at the University of New York medical department. There he founded the first obstetric clinic in America. It was estimated that over 10,000 poor patients a year were treated free of charge at his clinics. Walsh JJ, Bedford GS. In:\n                      The Catholic Encyclopedia.\n                      New York: Robert Appleton Company 1907;II:386; Savitt TL, Bedford GS. In: Kaufman M, Galishoff S, Savitt TL, eds. Dictionary of American Medical Biography. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1984; I: 52\u20133."},{"key":"bibr3-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"John Hughes was the first Roman Catholic Archbishop of New York. Code JB (op. cit. Ref. 1): p. 162."},{"key":"bibr4-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The Principles and Practice of Obstetrics.","author":"Bedford GS","year":"1861"},{"key":"bibr5-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"In 1811 Gibson was one of the founders of the medical department at the University of Maryland. Later he moved to Philadelphia where he shared the chair of surgery with George McClellan. Gibson W In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. Dictionary of American Medical Biography. New York: Longwood Press, 1928; 1979: 465\u20136."},{"key":"bibr6-jmb.2007.007035","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/bhm.2002.0144"},{"key":"bibr7-jmb.2007.007035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1353\/book.62237","volume-title":"Who Shall Take Care of Our Sick? Roman Catholic Sisters and the Development of Catholic Hospitals in New York City.","author":"McCauley B","year":"2005"},{"key":"bibr8-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Medical Education in the United States Before the Civil War.","author":"Norwood WE","year":"1971"},{"key":"bibr9-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Kauffman CJ (op. cit. Ref. 8): pp. 34-5."},{"key":"bibr10-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Epigenesis is the development of an organism from an undifferentiated cell, consisting in the successive formation and development of organs and parts that do not pre-exist in the zygote or fertilized ovum. Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1988: 566. This theory implies that each embryo is a totally new formation originating afresh at each fecundation. The same theory prompted Catholic physicians including Bedford and theologians of the 19th century to embrace a belief in immediate animation. Proponents of the theory of immediate animation held that human ensoulment and identity began at the moment of conception. The concept of immediate animation became the bulwark of the Roman Catholic Church's prohibition of abortion and reproductive control. Ryan JG.\n                      Wrestling With the Angel: The Struggle of Roman Catholic Clergy, Physicians and Believers With the Rise of Medical Practice, 1807-1940.\n                      PhD diss., American University, 1997."},{"key":"bibr11-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Abortion in America: The Origins and Evolution of National Policy, 1800-1900.","author":"Mohr JC","year":"1978"},{"key":"bibr12-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Brought to Bed: Child-Bearing in America, 1750-1950.","author":"Leavitt JW","year":"1986"},{"key":"bibr13-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The Emergence of Organized Clinical Instruction in the Nineteenth Century American Cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia.","author":"Smith DC","year":"1979"},{"key":"bibr14-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Against the Spirit of System: The French Impulse In Nineteenth Century American Medicine.","author":"Warner JH","year":"1998"},{"key":"bibr15-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Wlliam Shippen was the first doctor to lecture on midwifery and to establish a hospital for its teaching in the USA. In London he studied anatomy with John Hunter (1728-93) and midwifery with William Hunter (1718-83). Later he held the chair of anatomy, surgery and midwifery at the University of Pennsylvania. Packard FR, Shippen W In: Kelly, Burrage, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp.1104-6."},{"key":"bibr16-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Smith DC (op. cit. Ref. 13): p. 8."},{"key":"bibr17-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Warner JH (op. cit. Ref. 14): p. 18; Kaufman MH. American Medical Education. In: Numbers RL, ed. The Education of American Physicians. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980: 7\u201329."},{"key":"bibr18-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Women and Men Midwives: Medicine, Morality, and Misogyny in Early America.","author":"Donegan JB","year":"1979"},{"key":"bibr19-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"225","volume":"8","author":"Manley J","year":"1824","journal-title":"Medical Repository"},{"key":"bibr20-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Poor Women and their Babies: A Social History of Childbirth and Child Care Hospitals in Nineteenth Century New York City.","author":"Metaxas-Quiroga VA","year":"1989"},{"key":"bibr21-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Scenes from the Life of a City: Corruption and Conscience in Old New York.","author":"Hornberger E","year":"1994"},{"key":"bibr22-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"53","volume":"1","author":"Archbishop John Hughes","year":"1899","journal-title":"Historical Records and Studies"},{"key":"bibr23-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Godman held the chair of anatomy at Rutgers Medical College from 1826 until his death in 1830. Drury AG, Godman JD. In: Kelly, Burrage, eds.(op. cit. Ref. 5): p. 444."},{"key":"bibr24-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Kaufman M, Galishoff S, Savitt TL eds. (op. cit. Ref. 2): Vol. I, 52-3."},{"key":"bibr25-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Marie Alexandre D\u00e9sormeaux was a distinguished obstetrician. He was the head of obstetrics, and professor at the medical school in Paris. In Paris he became one of the most consulted practitioners concerning women's health. D\u00e9sormeaux MA. Dictionnaire Encyclop\u00e9dique des Sciences M\u00e9dicales. 100 Vols. 1st series. Paris, France: Asselin, 1883; XXVIII: 418\u20139."},{"key":"bibr26-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Paul Dubois received his MD in 1818. In 1834 he assumed the Chair of Obstetrics at the Paris Medical School. He was a proponent of natural childbirth throughout his career. Dubois P. Dictionnaire Encyclop\u00e9dique des Sciences M\u00e9dicales. 100 Vols. 1st series. Paris, France: Asselin, 1884; V: 605\u20136."},{"key":"bibr27-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Joseph Capuron obtained his MD in Paris in 1801. He taught medicine publicly for most of his life. Capuron's primary specialization was obstetrics in which he had some success. Capuron J. Dictionnaire Encyclop\u00e9dique des Sciences M\u00e9dicales. 100 Vols. : 1st series. Paris, France: Asselin, 1876; XII: 294\u20135."},{"key":"bibr28-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Chailly-Honor\u00e9 NC.\n                      A Practical Treatise on Midwifery\n                      , trans. Bedford GS. New York: Harper Brothers, 1844. Nicholas Chailly-Honor\u00e9. Chailly received his medical degree in 1838. He devoted his career solely to obstetrics. He acquired a great reputation as a highly skilled obstetrician, and was a permanent member of the\n                      Academie de M\u00e9dicine.\n                      Chailly-Honor\u00e9 N-C. Dictionnaire Encyclop\u00e9dique des Sciences M\u00e9dicales. 100 Vols., 1st series. Paris, France: Asselin, 1873; V: 632."},{"key":"bibr29-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"604","volume":"89","author":"Matas R","year":"1937","journal-title":"New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal"},{"key":"bibr30-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Charles A. Luzenberg studied surgery in Philadelphia with Philip Syng Physick. He obtained his MD at Jefferson Medical College there in 1827. Luzenberg left for New Orleans in 1829. Luzenberg CA. In: Kelly, HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): p. 766."},{"key":"bibr31-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"In 1822 Pr\u00e9vost performed the second caesarean operation in America. He operated on a slave woman. In four operations, he saved seven lives. Kaufman M, Francois M. Pr\u00e9vost. Kaufman M, Galishoff S, Savitt TL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 2): Vol. II, 608\u20139."},{"key":"bibr32-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"313","volume":"75","year":"1878","journal-title":"American Journal of the Medical Sciences"},{"key":"bibr33-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ryan JG. (op. cit. Ref. 10): pp. 54\u201356, 70-72."},{"key":"bibr34-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The Philadelphia Practice of Midwifery.","author":"Meigs CD","year":"1838"},{"key":"bibr35-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"An Address, Introductory to a Course of Lectures, Delivered in the Hall of the Medical College of South-Carolina, Before the Trustees and Faculty, the Students of Medicine, and the Public Generally, at the Opening of the Session of 1833-1834.","author":"Bedford GS","year":"1833"},{"key":"bibr36-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Norwood WF (op. cit. Ref. 8): p. 257."},{"key":"bibr37-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"883","volume":"63","author":"Worthington WC","year":"1987","journal-title":"Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine"},{"key":"bibr38-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Armsby served as professor of surgery and president of the college beginning in 1839. Armsby JH. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL (op. cit. Ref. 5): p. 36."},{"key":"bibr39-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Introductory Lecture Before the Albany Medical College, Delivered October 1, 1839.","author":"Bedford GS","year":"1839"},{"key":"bibr40-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Davis AW, Linton ML. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. Dictionary of American Medical Biography. Boston: Milford House, 1928; 1971: 748."},{"key":"bibr41-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"77","volume":"4","author":"Linton ML","year":"1841","journal-title":"Medical Examiner"},{"key":"bibr42-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Walter Charnning graduated MD from the University of Pennsylvania in 1809. He became the first professor of Obstetrics at Harvard University. Channing was an early advocate of obstetric anaesthesia. Burrage WL, Channing W In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp. 209\u2013210."},{"key":"bibr43-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Midwifery and Medicine in Boston: Walter Channing, M.D., 1786-1876.","author":"Kass AM","year":"2002"},{"key":"bibr44-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"589","volume":"119","year":"1888","journal-title":"Boston Medical and Surgical Journal"},{"key":"bibr45-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The Obstetric Institute of Philadelphia, Under the Charge of Joseph Warrington, M.D., Based upon The Obstetric Department of the Philadelphia Dispensary, (founded 1786); The Philadelphia Lying-in Charity, (incorporated 1832), and the Philadelphia Nurse Society, (established in 1839)."},{"key":"bibr46-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"53","volume":"4","author":"Warrington J","year":"1841","journal-title":"Medical Examiner"},{"key":"bibr47-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"165","volume":"4","author":"Warrington J","year":"1841","journal-title":"Medical Examiner"},{"key":"bibr48-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Norwood WF(op. cit. Ref. 8): p. 135."},{"key":"bibr49-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Valentine Mott graduated MD from Columbia College in 1806. Then he travelled to London to study with Sir Astley Cooper (1768-1841). He served as a professor of surgery at Rutgers, the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and the Medical Department of the University of New York. Mott V. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp. 880-2."},{"key":"bibr50-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Mott ran a free surgical clinic to treat poor Catholics. See\n                      Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register\n                      , 25 March 1848, 1 April 1848, 15 April 1848, 15 May 1848, 27 May 1848. He was President of the Medical Board at St Vincent's Hospital from 1849 to 1865. See Walsh ML.\n                      With a Great Heart: the Making of a Hospital.\n                      New York: St Vincent's Hospital and Medical Center, 1965."},{"key":"bibr51-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"By 1850 Irish immigrants were predominant at the institution. Metaxas-Quiroga VA (op. cit. Ref. 20): pp. 26, 27, 29, 35."},{"key":"bibr52-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"The Catholic newspaper collections of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia contain texts of the\n                      Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register\n                      from 24 January 1846 to 17 April 1847 An advertisement for Bedford's clinic appeared in the Catholic newspaper, offering to attend to the delivery indigent women in their homes without charge. The advertisement appeared in 14 editions of the paper during the period of time examined."},{"key":"bibr53-jmb.2007.007035","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025727300045014"},{"key":"bibr54-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Fifty-eight of the women bear Irish surnames identifiable by inspection. Thirty-two women are actually listed as of Irish, while two are English, one Scottish and two African-American. Sixteen of the cases do not bear names or pseudonyms."},{"key":"bibr55-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Obstetric statistics useful for purposes of comparison in this time period are fragmentary and difficult to come by. In early 1844 George H Beaumont reported seven maternal deaths in 107 deliveries of the Blockley Hospital in Philadelphia. There was no mention of how many of the infants survived. Beaumont GH. Statistical report of 107 cases of labour occurring in the Lying-in department of the Philadelphia Hospital (Blockley).\n                      Medical Examiner\n                      1844;7:7-38. Complete published statistics exist for the Obstetric Institute of Philadelphia for the year 1840 alone. In 1840, 113 women were delivered with one maternal death. Of the children, one died undelivered, two aborted and 113 children survived (there were three cases of twins). Warrington J. Report of obstetric practice in the Philadelphia Dispensary for the year 1840.\n                      Medical Examiner\n                      1841; 4: 73\u20134. With two deaths, it appears Bedford's results are better than those of Beaumont but he was less successful than Warrington."},{"key":"bibr56-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Such cases sometimes revealed the mores of the physicians. One unidentified case, number 65, bore the following comment \u2018how can the woman give birth to two full sized children and only be married seven months?\u2019 Morris A (op. cit. Ref. 53): p. 52."},{"key":"bibr57-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: pp. 6-7."},{"key":"bibr58-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 19."},{"key":"bibr59-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ergot was a drug used to stimulate and intensify uterine contractions during labour. If used prematurely, before the uterus was fully dilated, it could force the infant against the tissues and cause perineal lacerations. Such violent contractions might also cause the suffocation of the infant in the uterus. Leavitt JW (op. cit. Ref. 12): p. 144."},{"key":"bibr60-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"While Bedford intervened in 14 cases, a set of twins raised his total of births to 15. Obstetric statistics compiled by Fleetwood Churchill give us some sense as to how Bedford's success when compared with that of contemporary operators in Britain and Europe. The recorded data represented the published reports of some of the leading obstetricians of the period from 1781 to 1844. Churchill's data on forceps deliveries included: the total of forceps deliveries for a given practitioner, the number of mothers lost and the number of children lost. While a total of 8007 forceps cases appears in the record, not all of the data-sets were complete. To avoid skewed outcomes, incomplete data-sets have been excluded. This resulted in the exclusion of 276 cases, which totalled three percent of the cases (6 of 37 reports). Twelve of the cases had numbers of reports less than or equal to Bedford's record. British operators lost seven percent of mothers and 25% of infants in forceps cases. European (French and German) operators lost three percent of mothers and seven percent of infants. Of Bedford's nine forceps cases one mother and two infants died. Thus, Bedford's findings place him at 11% in maternal losses and 22% in infant losses. Both Bedford and British operators lost mothers in excess of their counterparts on the continent. Bedford fared slightly better than British operators in the number of infants saved. Fleetwood Churchill had nine forceps cases with no deaths of mothers or infants. David Humphreys Storer, whose eight cases were reported among the British operators, lost three infants but all mothers survived. While the data-set is small and the only record available, it is possible to infer that Bedford's figures were comparable with those of Churchill and Storer. See Churchill E\n                      On the Theory and Practice of Midwifery.\n                      Condie DF ed. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1863."},{"key":"bibr61-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Chailly-Honor\u00e9 NC (op. cit. Ref. 28): Vol. I."},{"key":"bibr62-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 303."},{"key":"bibr63-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Mohr JC. (op. cit. Ref. 11): p. 199."},{"key":"bibr64-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Robert M Huston was a professor at Thomas Jefferson University Medical School. He also served as editor of the\n                      Medical Examiner\n                      from 1844 to 1848. Huston RM. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): p. 624."},{"key":"bibr65-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"77","volume":"7","author":"Huston J","year":"1844","journal-title":"Medical Examiner"},{"key":"bibr66-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Hugh Lenox Hodge obtained his MD at the University of Pennsylvania in 1818. Later he assumed the chair of obstetrics there and became the physician to the Lying-in department at the Pennsylvania Hospital. Hodge HL. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp. 574-5."},{"key":"bibr67-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Foeticide or Criminal Abortion; a Lecture Introductory on Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children. University of Pennsylvania 1839-1840.","author":"Hodge HL","year":"1869"},{"key":"bibr68-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"An Introductory Lecture Delivered by Gunning S. Bedford, AM, MD., Professor of Midwifery and the Diseases of Women and Children, in the New York University Session MCCCCXLV-XLVI.","author":"Bedford GS","year":"1845"},{"key":"bibr69-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"A History of Public Health in New York City, 1625-1866.","author":"Duffy J","year":"1968"},{"key":"bibr70-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"A Traffic in Dead Bodies: Anatomy and Embodied Social Identity in Nineteenth Century America.","author":"Sappol M","year":"2002"},{"key":"bibr71-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"38","volume":"16","author":"Heaton CE","year":"1940","journal-title":"Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine"},{"key":"bibr72-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Bedford GS (op. cit. Ref. 68): p. 10."},{"key":"bibr73-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Lecture Introductory to a Course on Obstetrics and The Diseases of Women and Children, Delivered November 5, 1848.","author":"Bedford GS","year":"1848"},{"key":"bibr74-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"New York Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register, 15 July 1848."},{"key":"bibr75-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"bibr76-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"American Celt and Catholic Citizen, 17 July 1852; 7 August 1852; 21 August 1852; 28 August 1852; 11 September 1852; 18 September 1852; 25 September 1852; 9 October 1852; 16 October 1852; 30 November 1852 ."},{"key":"bibr77-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the Immigrant Menace.","author":"Kraut AM","year":"1994"},{"key":"bibr78-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The Immigrant Church: New York's Irish and German Catholics, 1815-1865.","author":"Dolan JP","year":"1975"},{"key":"bibr79-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Kaufman M, Galishoff S, Savitt TL (op. cit. Ref. 2): p. 52."},{"key":"bibr80-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Clinical Lectures of the Diseases of Women and Children.","author":"Bedford GS","year":"1855"},{"key":"bibr81-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 469."},{"key":"bibr82-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"James Platt White was the professor of obstetrics and gynaecology at Buffalo Medical College. Waterson D. White JP. In: HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp. 1292-3."},{"key":"bibr83-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ryan JG (op. cit. Ref. 10): pp. 90-1."},{"key":"bibr84-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Linton ML (op. cit. Ref. 41): p. 80."},{"key":"bibr85-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"352","volume":"2","author":"McCormack A","year":"1880","journal-title":"Medical Herald"},{"key":"bibr86-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The Bicentennial History of Georgetown University: From Academy to University, 1789-1889.","author":"Curran RE","year":"1993"},{"key":"bibr87-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Kass AM (op. cit. Ref.40): p. 84."},{"key":"bibr88-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"David Humphreys Storer held the chair of obstetrics and medical jurisprudence from 1854 to 1868 at Harvard Medical School. He was the Dean of the same school from 1855 to 1864. Storer M. Storer DH. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp. 1174-5."},{"key":"bibr89-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Longo LD. Horatio Robinson Storer. Kaufman M, Galishoff S, Savitt TL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 2): Vol. 2, pp. 722\u2013723. Mohr JC (op cit. Ref. 11): pp. 148-9."},{"key":"bibr90-jmb.2007.007035","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM185611060551402"},{"key":"bibr91-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Horatio R. Storer: Champion of Women and the Unborn.","author":"Dyer FN","year":"1999"},{"key":"bibr92-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"446","volume":"3","author":"Storer HR.","year":"1859","journal-title":"North American Medico-Chirurgical Review"},{"key":"bibr93-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"111","author":"John B","journal-title":"Code JB"},{"key":"bibr94-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: pp. 450-2; Mohr JC (op. cit. Ref. 11): p. 186. In 1878, Storer became a Catholic convert; Dyer FN (op. cit. Ref. 91): p. 423."},{"key":"bibr95-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Oliver Wendell Holmes became the Parkman Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Harvard Medical School in 1847. He held the professorship for 35 years. Bardeen CR. Holmes OW. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp. 583\u20136."},{"key":"bibr96-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Medical Discoveries: Who and When.","author":"Schmidt JE","year":"1959"},{"key":"bibr97-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Charles D Meigs was the professor of obstetrics at Jefferson Medical College from 1841 to 1861. Meigs CD. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): pp. 828-9."},{"key":"bibr98-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Bedford GS (op. cit. Ref. 4): p. 679."},{"key":"bibr99-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 619."},{"key":"bibr100-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"Obstetrics and Gynecology in America: A History.","author":"Speert HM","year":"1980"},{"key":"bibr101-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Kass AM (op. cit. Ref. 41): p. 84."},{"key":"bibr102-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Fleetwood Churchill was an obstetrician and medical writer. He was the King Professor of Midwifery in the School of Physic in Dublin from 1856 to 1864. Churchill E In: Stephen L, Lee S. Dictionary of National Biography: From the Earliest Times to 1900. 22 Vols. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1917; IV: 313."},{"key":"bibr103-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Bedford GS (op. cit. Ref. 4): pp. 629-30."},{"key":"bibr104-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"John Hull was the physician to the Manchester Lying-in Hospital. He was an early advocate of the caesarean operation. Stephen L, Lee S eds. John Hull (op. cit. Ref. 102): Vol. X, 195."},{"key":"bibr105-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Lesky E, Semmelweis IP (1818-1865). In: Dumesmil R, Schadewaldt H, eds. Die Beruhmten Artze. Koln: Aulis Verlag Deubner, 1967: 277\u20139. Hellman H.\n                      Great Feuds in Medicine: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever.\n                      New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2001."},{"key":"bibr106-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Jaques Pierre Maygrier specialized in the practice of obstetrics. He taught courses in anatomy, physiology and obstetrics. He was a leading figure in obstetrics during his lifetime. Dechambre A, Maygrier J-P. Dictionnaire Encyclop\u00e9dique des Sciences M\u00e9dicales. 100 Vols. 1st series. Paris, France: Asselin, 1883; V: 548\u20139."},{"key":"bibr107-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Bedford GS. (op. cit. Ref. 4): p. 634."},{"key":"bibr108-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"A Calculus of Suffering: Pain, Professionalism and Anaesthesia in Nineteenth-Century America.","author":"Pernick MS","year":"1985"},{"key":"bibr109-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Bedford GS. (op. cit. Ref. 4): pp. 634, 635, 651."},{"key":"bibr110-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The Principles and Practice of Obstetrics.","author":"Hodge HL","year":"1864"},{"key":"bibr111-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 228."},{"key":"bibr112-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 280."},{"key":"bibr113-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 285."},{"key":"bibr114-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Ibid.: p. 283."},{"key":"bibr115-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Joseph G Nancr\u00e9de received his MD at the University of Pennsylvania in 1813. He reported an early caesarean operation that occurred in his medical practice. It was, in fact, the case of Mrs R at the beginning of the text. William Gibson was the operator and Nancr\u00e9de published the account of the operation, which saved both mother and child. Nancr\u00e9de J. In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): 898."},{"key":"bibr116-jmb.2007.007035","unstructured":"Robert P. Harris obtained his MD from the University of Pennsylvania in 1844. He is best known as an eminent medical statistician. Kelly HA, Harris RP In: Kelly HA, Burrage WL, eds. (op. cit. Ref. 5): p. 533."},{"key":"bibr117-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"386","volume":"122","author":"Finnell TC","year":"1890","journal-title":"Boston Medical and Surgical Journal"},{"key":"bibr118-jmb.2007.007035","first-page":"149","volume-title":"The Catholic Encyclopedia.","volume":"19","year":"1967"},{"key":"bibr119-jmb.2007.007035","volume-title":"The National Cyclopedia of American Biography.","volume":"63","author":"Lee CC.","year":"1944"}],"container-title":["Journal of Medical Biography"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1258\/jmb.2007.007035","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1258\/jmb.2007.007035","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1258\/jmb.2007.007035","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T23:27:24Z","timestamp":1777505244000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1258\/jmb.2007.007035"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]},"references-count":119,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1258\/jmb.2007.007035"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1258\/jmb.2007.007035","relation":{},"ISSN":["0967-7720","1758-1087"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0967-7720","type":"print"},{"value":"1758-1087","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2008,8]]}}}