{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T06:39:43Z","timestamp":1787726383350,"version":"build-2784847793"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.159019.1","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745798400000}},{"DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.159019.2","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745798400000}}],"reference-count":77,"publisher":"F1000 Research Ltd","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745798400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["f1000research.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["F1000Res"],"abstract":"<ns3:p>\n                    Background Microalgae-based products offer a sustainable solution for food, fuel, and agricultural inputs, presenting environmental benefits and economic opportunities. A comprehensive assessment is needed to understand their potential in supporting sustainability goals, considering the complex interplay between production methods, energy sources, and environmental impacts. Methods This study evaluated the environmental impacts of three microalgae-derived products \u2013 biodiesel, fish feed, and biofertilizer \u2013 through a comprehensive life cycle assessment. Nine scenarios were explored comparing three electricity profiles (current Thai mix, 50% renewable\/50% current mix hybrid, 100% renewable) across the three products. The assessment evaluated environmental impacts and potential economic benefits of transitioning to these microalgae-based alternatives. Results and discussion All products demonstrated potential for significant environmental benefits under increased renewable energy scenarios. Fish feed consistently exhibited the lowest environmental impacts across all categories examined, showing substantial improvements with increased renewable energy use. With an annual demand of 0.4 million tonnes, fish feed could generate USD 560 million in revenue and reduce CO\n                    <ns3:sub>2<\/ns3:sub>\n                    emissions by 1.1 million tonnes. Fulfilling the projected biodiesel demand of 4,015 million liters per year through microalgae production could yield approximately USD 3.5 billion in revenue and reduce CO\n                    <ns3:sub>2<\/ns3:sub>\n                    emissions by 30 million tonnes compared to conventional fossil-based diesel. Additionally, algal biofertilizer production could meet a 5 million tonnes annual demand, offering USD 2 billion in revenue while reducing CO\n                    <ns3:sub>2<\/ns3:sub>\n                    emissions by 6 million tonnes yearly. Collectively, these products could offset 37 million tonnes of CO\n                    <ns3:sub>2<\/ns3:sub>\n                    , representing about 14% of Thailand\u2019s total CO\n                    <ns3:sub>2<\/ns3:sub>\n                    emissions, contributing significantly to the country\u2019s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) target of 20-30% greenhouse gas emissions reduction. Conclusion Transitioning to microalgae-based products could transform the aquaculture, energy, and agricultural sectors, potentially supporting the national climate change mitigation goals, if implemented.\n                  <\/ns3:p>","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.159019.3","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]],"date-time":"2025-04-28T13:00:08Z","timestamp":1745845208000},"page":"1503","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/f1000research.crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Life Cycle Assessment of Microalgae-Based Products for Carbon Dioxide Utilization in Thailand: Biofertilizer, Fish Feed,\u00a0and\u00a0Biodiesel"],"prefix":"10.12688","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Adeel","family":"Rafiq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cameron","family":"Morris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abigail","family":"Schudel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4300-1551","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shabbir","family":"Gheewala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2560","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"386-407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spc.2024.01.004","article-title":"The synergistic role of carbon dioxide removal and emission reductions in achieving the Paris Agreement goal.","volume":"45","author":"H Adun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sustainable Production and Consumption."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.160670","article-title":"Evaluation of the fertilizer potential of Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus obliquus grown in agricultural drainage water from maize fields.","volume":"861","author":"P Alvarenga","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. 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We appreciate the positive evaluation of our manuscript and the suggestions that helped enhance the clarity and completeness of our study. Below are our detailed responses to each point raised.   \n<b>Comments 1\u20133<\/b>  \n<b>Comment<\/b>:  Mention the purity range of the CO\n<sub>2<\/sub> captured using the amine-based technology. The authors mention in the results that they considered emissions from amine-based technology in the final emissions balance. This is relevant information that should have been presented in the methodology. Please clarify whether the CO\n<sub>2<\/sub> injected and not captured and fixed was added to the emissions balance. That was not clear.   \n<b>Response<\/b>: Thank you for these valuable comments. We have revised the \n<b>Methodology<\/b> section to address these points in detail. The following text has been added:  \n<i>\u201cIn this study, post-combustion CO<sub>2<\/sub> capture is modeled using monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent, which is well-established and commonly applied in retrofitting existing fossil fuel power plants. The process involves absorbing CO<sub>2<\/sub> &nbsp;from flue gases using MEA in an absorber column, followed by thermal regeneration of the solvent to release concentrated CO<sub>2<\/sub>. The recovered CO<sub>2<\/sub> is then compressed and transported for downstream utilization. The captured CO<sub>2<\/sub> itself is considered an emission stream and thus not assigned any environmental burden related to its formation. However, the energy and material inputs required for the capture process\u2014including electricity and thermal energy consumption (approximately 378 kWh per tonne of CO<sub>2<\/sub> captured), solvent use, and infrastructure\u2014are fully accounted for and allocated to the system (Rafiq et al., 2024a; Win et al., 2023). This ensures that the environmental impacts of enabling CO<sub>2<\/sub> capture are reflected in the lifecycle assessment. Amine-based CO<sub>2<\/sub> capture typically produces CO<sub>2<\/sub> with a purity &gt;90% (Win et al., 2023). This high purity ensures effective uptake by the algal culture and avoids potential contamination. Importantly, while 100% of the captured CO<sub>2<\/sub> is included in the system inventory, it is assumed that only 75% is fixed in the final products. The remaining 25% is modeled as released to the atmosphere, and thus contributes to the system\u2019s overall emissions.<\/i>\u201d  \n<b>Comment 4<\/b>:  \n<i>Mention the biomass productivity that you considered in sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2.<\/i>  \n<b>Response<\/b>: Thank you for the suggestion. We have now included the relevant biomass productivity values in Section 2.2.1, which describes the microalgae cultivation conditions. The following text was added:  \n<i>\u201cIn this study, the microalgae are cultivated in borosilicate glass tubular photobioreactors, selected for their high surface area-to-volume ratio and efficient light utilization. The productivity of the system for three products is 0.69 g L\u207b&sup1; d\u207b&sup1; and a yield of 59 tonnes per hectare per year (Schade and Meier, 2020).<\/i>\u201d  \n<b>Comment 5<\/b>:  \n<i>In Figure 2, in the biodiesel scenario, I did not identify the &quot;emissions&quot; output. Please check.<\/i>  \n<b>Response<\/b>:  Thank you for bringing this to our attention. We have revised Figure 2 to clearly label the emissions output in the biodiesel scenario. This adjustment improves the clarity of the figure and ensures consistent representation of emissions across all scenarios.","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/13-1503\/v3#referee-comment-13717","order":2,"name":"referee-comment-13717","label":"Referee Comment","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work","order":3,"name":"grant-information","label":"Grant Information"},{"value":"This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.","order":0,"name":"copyright-info","label":"Copyright"}]}}