{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T05:17:06Z","timestamp":1783574226792,"version":"3.55.0"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.182654.1","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783555200000}}],"reference-count":33,"publisher":"F1000 Research Ltd","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783555200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020871","name":"Abu Dhabi University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["f1000research.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["F1000Res"],"abstract":"<ns5:p>Background Given the growing use of information and communication technology across many essential industries, threats associated with military operations have emerged in cyberspace, thereby resulting in various debates concerning the extent to which International Humanitarian Law (IHL) applies to such threats. Methods The paper adopts an analytical and inductive approach based on traditional and customary IHL provisions, as well as reports from specialized organizations. In this regard, this study explores the legal framework for these threats and assesses the applicability of the IHL provisions to operations carried out during non-international armed conflicts and those occurring outside such contexts. The study also sheds light on the different interpretations of the concept of \u201cattack\u201d within the context of the IHL and assesses the degree of protection afforded to civilians and their objects in light of the distinctive features of cyberspace. Results The paper demonstrates that even though IHL provides a fundamental framework for such operations, its application to cyber operations is constrained by structural challenges, given the specificity of its infrastructure and the uncertainty surrounding civilian digital data. These challenges impede the practical application of the principles of distinction, proportionality, and precaution. Conclusions The study concludes that the concept of \u201cattack\u201d needs to be reinterpreted considering the indirect harm inflicted on civilians resulting from cyber operations. It also manifests the need to raise the scope of legal protection encompassing fundamental civilian digital data and confirms the possibility of developing a specialized international legal framework that governs cyber operations whether through the creation of an additional protocol or a treaty specific for such operations. Finally, the study further affirms the necessity to establish a neutral international mechanism that can conduct fact-finding tasks, investigate violations, and assign liabilities so as to promote better adherence to humanitarian principles in contemporary armed conflicts.<\/ns5:p>","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.182654.2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]],"date-time":"2026-07-09T04:39:07Z","timestamp":1783571947000},"page":"919","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/f1000research.crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cyber Military Operations under International Humanitarian Law: Interpreting the Concept of \u201cAttack\u201d and Challenges in Protecting Civilians"],"prefix":"10.12688","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6688-0764","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eman","family":"Hamdan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"PH-D, Collage of Law Geneva Switzerland 1201 University of Geneva"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashraf","family":"Al-Rai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Collage of Law Abu Dhabi Abu Dhabi 00000 Abu Dhabi University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5892-9176","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maya","family":"Khater","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Collage of Law Al Ain Abu Dhabi 00000 United Arab Emirates University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"2560","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1175-1190","DOI":"10.30564\/fls.v6i6.7408","article-title":"The contribution of smartphone apps to develop teaching the Arabic language: \u201cArabic Is My Language\u2019s App\u201d as a sample.","volume":"6","author":"M Abou Adel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Forum for Linguistic 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We greatly appreciate your time, expertise, and encouraging assessment of our work.  Kind regards, Maya Khater","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/15-919\/v2#referee-comment-16459","order":1,"name":"referee-comment-16459","label":"Referee Comment","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"10.5256\/f1000research.201616.r494122, Mohamad Hidayat Muhtar, Universitas Negeri Gorontalo, Gorontalo, 22 Jun 2026, version 1, indexed","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/15-919\/v1#referee-response-494122","order":2,"name":"referee-response-494122","label":"Referee Report","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"<b>Maya Khater<\/b>; \n<i>Posted: 29 Jun 2026<\/i>; The authors sincerely thank the reviewer for the constructive comments and valuable suggestions, which have significantly improved the quality of the manuscript. We have carefully considered all of the reviewer's recommendations and addressed them in the revised version. Specifically, the methodology section has been expanded to provide a clearer explanation of the inductive and analytical legal approach, including the selection and analysis of primary and secondary legal sources, the analytical framework employed, and the thematic organization of the study. The manuscript has also been revised to improve its overall structure and readability, and to ensure consistency in legal terminology throughout the text.","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/15-919\/v2#referee-comment-16544","order":3,"name":"referee-comment-16544","label":"Referee Comment","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"10.5256\/f1000research.201616.r494118, Hamzeh Abu Issa, Applied Science Private University, Amman, 29 Jun 2026, version 1, indexed","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/15-919\/v1#referee-response-494118","order":4,"name":"referee-response-494118","label":"Referee Report","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"<b>Maya Khater<\/b>; \n<i>Posted: 29 Jun 2026<\/i>; The authors sincerely thank the reviewer for the positive evaluation of our manuscript and for the constructive comments. They greatly appreciate the recommendation for accepting the manuscript.","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/15-919\/v2#referee-comment-16545","order":5,"name":"referee-comment-16545","label":"Referee Comment","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work","order":6,"name":"grant-information","label":"Grant Information"},{"value":"This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.","order":0,"name":"copyright-info","label":"Copyright"}]}}