{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T00:22:00Z","timestamp":1777594920251,"version":"3.51.4"},"update-to":[{"DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.50861.1","type":"new_version","label":"New version","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]],"date-time":"2021-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631577600000}}],"reference-count":0,"publisher":"F1000 Research Ltd","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]],"date-time":"2021-09-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631577600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006559","name":"University of Tsukuba","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ResearchSupportProgramtoTackleCOVID\u201019RelatedEmergencyProblems"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ResearchSupportProgramtoTackleCOVID\u201019RelatedEmergencyProblems"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006559","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba","award":["University of Tsukuba Gateway (F1000) Article Submission Support Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["University of Tsukuba Gateway (F1000) Article Submission Support Program"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["f1000research.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["F1000Res"],"abstract":"<ns3:p>Since March 2020, the Act on Special Measures for Pandemic Influenza and New Infectious Diseases Preparedness and Response has been a significant statute in dealing with COVID-19 in Japan. The Act mandates requests, instructions and orders for business suspension and shortened business hours, as well as stay-at-home requests. These measures limit freedom of movement and establishment, guaranteed rights under the Japanese Constitution. This article poses the following research question: \u201cDoes the Japanese Constitution allow measures against COVID-19 such as requests, instructions and orders for business suspension and shortened business hours, and stay-at-home requests?\u201d It also asks: \u201cAre measures with penalties allowed by the Constitution?\u201d given the fact that the penalties were introduced in February 2021. This paper introduces constitutional concepts that guarantee or limit individual freedom. Concepts that guarantee individual freedoms include freedom of establishment and movement. These freedoms derive from the constitutional values of freedom to choose one\u2019s occupation and choose and change one\u2019s residence (Art. 22) and the right to own or hold property (Art. 29). Concepts that limit individual freedom include the right to life (Art. 13), welfare rights and public health (Art. 25), and public welfare (Art. 13). Individual freedom that threatens right to life, welfare rights and public health, and public welfare may not be guaranteed. This paper argues that the Constitution allows the measures against COVID-19 limiting freedom of establishment and movement from the perspectives of the right to life, welfare rights, public health, and public welfare, and the government is responsible for reducing the risk to life from COVID-19. It also argues that the Constitution permits measures with penalties, while proportionality needs to be considered.<\/ns3:p>","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.50861.2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]],"date-time":"2021-09-14T04:30:06Z","timestamp":1631593806000},"page":"230","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/f1000research.crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["COVID-19 measures and human rights guaranteed by the Japanese Constitution"],"prefix":"10.12688","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2251-8324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hajime","family":"Akiyama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"2560","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]]},"container-title":["F1000Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2\/iparadigms","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]],"date-time":"2021-09-30T21:45:08Z","timestamp":1633038308000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.12688\/f1000research.50861.2","relation":{"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5256\/f1000research.76767.r94193","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5256\/f1000research.76767.r94194","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5256\/f1000research.76767.r94193","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5256\/f1000research.76767.r94194","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2046-1402"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2046-1402","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Indexed","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2#article-reports","order":0,"name":"referee-status","label":"Referee status","group":{"name":"current-referee-status","label":"Current Referee Status"}},{"value":"10.5256\/f1000research.76767.r94194, Hajime Yamamoto, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan, 24 Sep 2021, version 2, indexed","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2#referee-response-94194","order":0,"name":"referee-response-94194","label":"Referee Report","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"<b>Hajime Akiyama<\/b>; \n<i>Posted: 24 Sep 2021<\/i>; \u5c71\u5143\u5148\u751f  \u67fb\u8aad\u30b3\u30e1\u30f3\u30c8\u3092\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u3001\u3042\u308a\u304c\u3068\u3046\u3054\u3056\u3044\u307e\u3059\u3002  \u672c\u8ad6\u6587\u3067\u306f\u3001COVID-19\u3084\u305d\u306e\u5bfe\u7b56\u306b\u95a2\u9023\u3059\u308b\u61b2\u6cd5\u4e0a\u306e\u8ad6\u70b9\u3092\u691c\u8a0e\u3057\u305f\u305f\u3081\u306b\u3001\u4e00\u822c\u7406\u8ad6\u7684\u306a\u554f\u984c\u3068\u500b\u5225\u5177\u4f53\u7684\u306a\u554f\u984c\u306e\u53cc\u65b9\u3092\u6271\u3044\u307e\u3057\u305f\u3002  \u3054\u6307\u6458\u306e\u901a\u308a\u3001\u4e00\u822c\u7406\u8ad6\u7684\u306a\u691c\u8a0e\u3092\u884c\u3063\u305f\u4e0a\u3067\u8b70\u8ad6\u3092\u6df1\u3081\u308b\u3079\u304d\u70b9\u304c\u591a\u304f\u3054\u3056\u3044\u307e\u3059\u306e\u3067\u3001\u4eca\u5f8c\u306e\u8ab2\u984c\u3068\u3055\u305b\u3066\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u307e\u3059\u3002  \u4eca\u5f8c\u306e\u7814\u7a76\u8ab2\u984c\u306b\u3064\u306a\u304c\u308b\u30b3\u30e1\u30f3\u30c8\u3092\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f\u3053\u3068\u306b\u3001\u91cd\u306d\u3066\u5fa1\u793c\u7533\u3057\u4e0a\u3052\u307e\u3059\u3002","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2#referee-comment-7194","order":1,"name":"referee-comment-7194","label":"Referee Comment","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"10.5256\/f1000research.76767.r94193, Masahiro Sogabe, Graduate School of Law, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, 22 Sep 2021, version 2, indexed","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2#referee-response-94193","order":2,"name":"referee-response-94193","label":"Referee Report","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"<b>Hajime Akiyama<\/b>; \n<i>Posted: 22 Sep 2021<\/i>; \u66fd\u6211\u90e8\u5148\u751f  \u67fb\u8aad\u30b3\u30e1\u30f3\u30c8\u3092\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u3001\u3042\u308a\u304c\u3068\u3046\u3054\u3056\u3044\u307e\u3059\u3002  \u300c\u500b\u4eba\u306e\u81ea\u7531\u3092\u4fdd\u969c\u3059\u308b\u6982\u5ff5\u300d\u3068\u300c\u500b\u4eba\u306e\u81ea\u7531\u3092\u5236\u9650\u3057\u3046\u308b\u6982\u5ff5\u300d\u3092\u5bfe\u7f6e\u3057\u3066\u5206\u6790\u3059\u308b\u3053\u3068\u306e\u610f\u7fa9\u306b\u3064\u304d\u307e\u3057\u3066\u306f\u3001\u4eca\u5f8c\u5b66\u754c\u306e\u5148\u751f\u65b9\u3068\u8b70\u8ad6\u3055\u305b\u3066\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u305f\u3044\u3068\u8003\u3048\u3066\u304a\u308a\u307e\u3059\u3002 \u307e\u305f\u3001COVID-19\u5bfe\u7b56\u306e\u8af8\u63aa\u7f6e\u306e\u5408\u61b2\u6027\u306e\u691c\u8a0e\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u3082\u3001\u4eca\u5f8c\u691c\u8a0e\u3057\u3066\u307e\u3044\u308a\u307e\u3059\u3002  \u4eca\u5f8c\u306e\u7814\u7a76\u8ab2\u984c\u306b\u3064\u306a\u304c\u308b\u30b3\u30e1\u30f3\u30c8\u3092\u3044\u305f\u3060\u304d\u307e\u3057\u305f\u3053\u3068\u306b\u3001\u91cd\u306d\u3066\u5fa1\u793c\u7533\u3057\u4e0a\u3052\u307e\u3059\u3002","URL":"https:\/\/f1000research.com\/articles\/10-230\/v2#referee-comment-7182","order":3,"name":"referee-comment-7182","label":"Referee Comment","group":{"name":"article-reports","label":"Article Reports"}},{"value":"This research was supported by Research Support Program to Tackle COVID\u201019 Related Emergency Problems, University of Tsukuba, and University of Tsukuba Gateway (F1000) Article Submission Support Program, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Tsukuba. \u672c\u7a3f\u306f\u7b51\u6ce2\u2f24\u5b66\u65b0\u578b\u30b3\u30ed\u30ca\u30a6\u30a4\u30eb\u30b9\u7dca\u6025\u5bfe\u7b56\u306b\u95a2\u3059\u308b\u7814\u7a76\u2f40\u63f4\u30d7\u30ed\u30b0\u30e9\u30e0\u304a\u3088\u3073\u7b51\u6ce2\u5927\u5b66\u30b2\u30fc\u30c8\u30a6\u30a7\u30a4\uff08F1000\uff09\u8ad6\u6587\u6295\u7a3f\u652f\u63f4\u30d7\u30ed\u30b0\u30e9\u30e0\u306e\u52a9\u6210\u3092\u53d7\u3051\u305f\u3082\u306e\u3067\u3042\u308b\u3002","order":4,"name":"grant-information","label":"Grant Information"},{"value":"This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.","order":0,"name":"copyright-info","label":"Copyright"}]}}