{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T23:12:53Z","timestamp":1791241973066,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,29]],"date-time":"2017-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1514505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":2145,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,5,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Background: Colonial cinnabar mining and refining began in Huancavelica, Peru, in 1564. With a local source of mercury, the amalgamation process was adopted to refine silver in Potos\u00ed, Bolivia, in the early 1570s. As a result, large quantities of mercury were released into the environment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Objectives: We used archival, primary, and secondary sources to develop the first estimate of mercury emissions from cinnabar refining in Huancavelica and to revise previous estimates of emissions from silver refining in Potos\u00ed during the colonial period (1564\u20131810).<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Discussion: Although other estimates of historical mercury emissions have recognized Potos\u00ed as a significant source, Huancavelica has been overlooked. In addition, previous estimates of mercury emissions from silver refining under-estimated emissions because of unrecorded (contra-band) production and volatilization of mercury during processing and recovery. Archival descriptions document behavioral and health issues during the colonial period that are consistent with known effects of mercury intoxication.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Conclusions: According to our calculations, between 1564 and 1810, an estimated 17,000 metric tons of mercury vapor were emitted from cinnabar smelting in Huancavelica, and an estimated 39,000 metric tons were released as vapor during silver refining operations in Potos\u00ed. Huancavelica and Potos\u00ed combined contributed &amp;gt; 25% of the 196,000 metric tons of mercury vapor emissions in all of Latin America between 1500 and 1800. The historical record is laden with evidence of mercury intoxication consistent with effects recognized today. Our estimates serve as the foundation of investigations of present-day contamination in Huancavelica and Potos\u00ed resulting from historical emissions of mercury.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1104192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,2,14]],"date-time":"2012-02-14T10:22:15Z","timestamp":1329214935000},"page":"627-631","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Mercury Production and Use in Colonial Andean Silver Production: Emissions and Health Implications"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"120","author":[{"given":"Nicholas A.","family":"Robins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of History, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA"},{"name":"Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Fellow, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicole A.","family":"Hagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Fellow, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit1","author":"ABNB ALP (Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia, Audiencia de la Plata) Minas 15\/1","year":"1556"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit2","author":"ABNB ALP (Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia, Audiencia de la Plata) Minas 112\/8","year":"1587"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit3","author":"ABNB ALP (Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia, Audiencia de la Plata) Minas 63\/17","year":"1655"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit4","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry\n          . 1999. Health effects. In: Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Atlanta, GA:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 29\u2013361.Available: http:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/toxprofiles\/tp46.pdf [accessed 19 March 2012]."},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit5","author":"Agricola G","year":"1950"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.4700150505","article-title":"Occupational mercury exposure and male reproductive health.","volume":"15","author":"Alcser","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit7","first-page":"17605","article-title":"Descripci\u00f3n o historia geogr\u00e1fica del terreno y lugares conmarcanos de Potos\u00ed [in Spanish]. London:British Library, Add.","author":"Anonymous","year":"1759","journal-title":"MS"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit8","article-title":"Memoria sobre la mina de azogue de Huancavelica [in Spanish]","author":"Anonymous","year":"1857"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit9","article-title":"In: Pareceres juridicos en asuntos de indias (1601\u20131718) (Vargas Ugarte R, ed)","author":"Anonymous. 1951. Pareceres de los Padres de la Compa\u00f1\u00eda de Jes\u00fas de Potos\u00ed [in Spanish]","year":"1610"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit10","author":"Arena P","year":"1901"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit11","article-title":"Historia de la Villa Imperial de Potos\u00ed [in Spanish] (Hanke L, Mendoza G, eds)","author":"Arz\u00e1ns de Ors\u00faa y Vela B","year":"1965"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit12","first-page":"67","article-title":"Registered silver production in the Potosi district, 1550\u20131735.","volume":"12","author":"Bakewell","year":"1975","journal-title":"Jahrbuch fur Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit13","first-page":"25","article-title":"Historia del descubrimiento del cerro de Potos\u00ed, fundaci\u00f3n de su Imperial Villa, sus progresos y actual estado","volume":"7","author":"Baquijano","year":"1793","journal-title":"Mercurio Peruano"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit14","author":"Bargallo M","year":"1969"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit15","article-title":"Reproductive hazards at work","author":"Barlow SM, Dayan AD, Powell CJ","year":"1994"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026080314055912300_micit16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1215\/00182168-52.4.545","article-title":"Colonial silver mining: Mexico and Peru.","volume":"52","author":"Brading","year":"1972","journal-title":"Hisp Am Hist Rev"},{"issue":"182\u2013183","key":"2026080314055912300_micit17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.3989\/revindias.1988.i182-183.349","article-title":"La crisis financiera peruana al comienzo del siglo XV, la miner\u00eda de plata y la mina de azogue de Huancavelica","volume":"48","author":"Brown","year":"1988","journal-title":"Revista de Indias"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026080314055912300_micit18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1353\/tam.2001.0030","article-title":"Workers\u2019 health and colonial mercury mining at Huancavelica, Peru.","volume":"57","author":"Brown","year":"2001","journal-title":"Americas"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit19","article-title":"Geograf\u00eda del Per\u00fa Virreinal (Siglo XVIII) [in Spanish] (Valc\u00e1rcel CD, ed)","author":"Bueno C","year":"1951"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit20","author":"Ca\u00f1ete y Dom\u00ednguez PV","year":"1952"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit21","article-title":"Relaci\u00f3n general de la Villa Imperial de Potos\u00ed [in Spanish] (Hanke L, ed)","author":"Capoche L","year":"1959"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit22","article-title":"Noticia general del Per\u00fa, Vol 4 [in Spanish] (Helmer M, ed)","author":"Caravantes FL","year":"1989"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1080\/10408440600845619","article-title":"The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds.","volume":"36","author":"Clarkson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Crit Rev Toxicol"},{"issue":"17\u2013131","key":"2026080314055912300_micit24","article-title":"Libro borrador en que se asientan las partidas del azogue que se distribuye entre los azogueros y mineros de esta ribera y minerales de su contorno desde veinte y tres de mayo de este a\u00f1o de mil setecientos y cinco en adelante","volume":"1705\u20131717","author":"CNMAH (Casa Nacional de Moneda, Archivo Hist\u00f3rico) CR 554","year":"1705"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit25","author":"CNMAH (Casa Nacional de Moneda, Archivo Hist\u00f3rico) CR 620","year":"1717"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit26","author":"CNMAH (Casa Nacional de Moneda, Archivo Hist\u00f3rico) CR 651\/427","year":"1720"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit27","author":"CNMAH (Casa Nacional de Moneda, Archivo Hist\u00f3rico) CR 721","year":"1734"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit28","author":"CNMAH (Casa Nacional de Moneda, Archivo Hist\u00f3rico) CR 810\/238","year":"1964"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit29","author":"Cobb G","year":"1977"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit30","article-title":"Historia del Nuevo Mundo [in Spanish] (Mateos F, ed)","author":"Cobo B","year":"1956"},{"key":"2026080314055912300_micit31","article-title":"The Potos\u00ed Mita, 1573\u20131700. 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