{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T18:25:15Z","timestamp":1792002315022,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,29]],"date-time":"2017-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1514505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1169,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Background: The U.S. EPA\u2019s Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) completed an updated toxicological review of dichloromethane in November 2011.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Objectives: In this commentary we summarize key results and issues of this review, including exposure sources, identification of potential health effects, and updated physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Methods: We performed a comprehensive review of primary research studies and evaluation of PBPK models.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Discussion: Hepatotoxicity was observed in oral and inhalation exposure studies in several studies in animals; neurological effects were also identified as a potential area of concern. Dichloromethane was classified as likely to be carcinogenic in humans based primarily on evidence of carcinogenicity at two sites (liver and lung) in male and female B6C3F1 mice (inhalation exposure) and at one site (liver) in male B6C3F1 mice (drinking-water exposure). Recent epidemiologic studies of dichloromethane (seven studies of hematopoietic cancers published since 2000) provide additional data raising concerns about associations with non-Hodgkin lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Although there are gaps in the database for dichloromethane genotoxicity (i.e., DNA adduct formation and gene mutations in target tissues in vivo), the positive DNA damage assays correlated with tissue and\/or species availability of functional glutathione S-transferase (GST) metabolic activity, the key activation pathway for dichloromethane-induced cancer. Innovations in the IRIS assessment include estimation of cancer risk specifically for a presumed sensitive genotype (GST-theta-1+\/+), and PBPK modeling accounting for human physiological distributions based on the expected distribution for all individuals 6 months to 80 years of age.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Conclusion: The 2011 IRIS assessment of dichloromethane provides insights into the toxicity of a commonly used solvent.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Citation: Schlosser PM, Bale AS, Gibbons CF, Wilkins A, Cooper GS. 2015. Human health effects of dichloromethane: key findings and scientific issues. Environ Health Perspect 123:114\u2013119; http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1289\/ehp.1308030<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1308030","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]],"date-time":"2014-10-17T12:23:20Z","timestamp":1413548600000},"page":"114-119","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":131,"title":["Human Health Effects of Dichloromethane: Key Findings and Scientific Issues"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"123","author":[{"given":"Paul M.","family":"Schlosser","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ambuja S.","family":"Bale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine F.","family":"Gibbons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amina","family":"Wilkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Glinda S.","family":"Cooper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1002\/em.2850150409","article-title":"Cytogenetic analyses of mice exposed to dichloromethane.","volume":"15","author":"Allen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Environ Mol Mutagen"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(91)90264-F","article-title":"Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling with dichloromethane, its metabolite, carbon monoxide, and blood carboxyhemoglobin in rats and humans.","volume":"108","author":"Andersen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(87)90281-X","article-title":"Physiologically based pharmacokinetics and the risk assessment process for methylene chloride.","volume":"87","author":"Andersen","year":"1987","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit4","unstructured":"ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry).\n          \n          2000. Toxicological Profile for Methylene Chloride. Atlanta, GA:ATSDR.Available: http:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/toxprofiles\/tp14.pdf [accessed 17 March 2014]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2011.05.008","article-title":"A review of potential neurotoxic mechanisms among three chlorinated organic solvents.","volume":"255","author":"Bale","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwq360","article-title":"Genetic variation in metabolic genes, occupational solvent exposure, and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.","volume":"173","author":"Barry","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfj176","article-title":"Application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling in setting acute exposure guideline levels for methylene chloride.","volume":"91","author":"Bos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicol Sci"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/0272-0590(84)90217-3","article-title":"Methylene chloride: a two-year inhalation toxicity and oncogenicity study in rats and hamsters.","volume":"4","author":"Burek","year":"1984","journal-title":"Fundam Appl Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit9","unstructured":"CalEPA (California Environmental Protection Agency).\n          \n          2000. Public Health Goals for Chemicals in Drinking Water: Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride, DCM).Available: http:\/\/oehha.ca.gov\/water\/phg\/pdf\/dcm.pdf [accessed 12 January 2012]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1006\/faat.1996.0081","article-title":"DNA\u2013protein cross-links (DPX) and cell proliferation in B6C3F1 mice but not Syrian golden hamsters exposed to dichloromethane: pharmacokinetics and risk assessment with DPX as dosimeter.","volume":"31","author":"Casanova","year":"1996","journal-title":"Fundam Appl Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(92)90109-6","article-title":"Dichloromethane (methylene chloride): metabolism to formaldehyde and formation of DNA-protein cross-links in B6C3F1 mice and Syrian golden hamsters.","volume":"114","author":"Casanova","year":"1992","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit12","first-page":"351","article-title":"Some observations on workers exposed to methylene chloride.","volume":"38","author":"Cherry","year":"1981","journal-title":"Br J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H1802","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.2001.280.4.H1802","article-title":"Carbon monoxide wash-in method to determine gas transfer in vascular beds: application to rat hindlimb.","volume":"280","author":"Cho","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3380","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8083380","article-title":"Insights from epidemiology into dichloromethane and cancer risk.","volume":"8","author":"Cooper","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.20592","article-title":"Risk of leukemia and multiple myeloma associated with exposure to benzene and other organic solvents: evidence from the Italian Multicenter Case\u2013control study.","volume":"51","author":"Costantini","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2005.12.003","article-title":"Revised assessment of cancer risk to dichloromethane II. Application of probabilistic methods to cancer risk determinations.","volume":"45","author":"David","year":"2006","journal-title":"Regul Toxicol Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6592.2008.01215.x","article-title":"A Compilation of statistics for VOCs from post-1990 indoor air concentration studies in North American residences unaffected by subsurface vapor intrusion.","volume":"29","author":"Dawson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ground Water Monit Remediat"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2280(1997)30:4<440::AID-EM9>3.0.CO;2-M","article-title":"Glutathione S-transferase-mediated induction of GC\u25a1AT transitions by halomethanes in Salmonella.","volume":"30","author":"DeMarini","year":"1997","journal-title":"Environ Mol Mutagen"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1093\/mutage\/11.3.247","article-title":"An investigation into the activation and deactivation of chlorinated hydrocarbons to genotoxins in metabolically competent human cells.","volume":"11","author":"Doherty","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mutagenesis"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2010.01.018","article-title":"Evaluation of two different metabolic hypotheses for dichloromethane toxicity using physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling for in vivo inhalation gas uptake data exposure in female B6C3F1 mice.","volume":"244","author":"Evans","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(86)90196-1","article-title":"Metabolism of inhaled dihalomethanes in vivo: differentiation of kinetic constants for two independent pathways.","volume":"82","author":"Gargas","year":"1986","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1218(81)90072-0","article-title":"Mutagenicity of cosmetics ingredients licensed by the European communities.","volume":"90","author":"Gocke","year":"1981","journal-title":"Mutat Res"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.2009.054809","article-title":"The relationship between multiple myeloma and occupational exposure to six chlorinated solvents.","volume":"68","author":"Gold","year":"2011","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1218(94)90050-7","article-title":"The role of formaldehyde and S-chloromethylglutathione in the bacterial mutagenicity of methylene chloride.","volume":"320","author":"Graves","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mutat Res"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/15.5.991","article-title":"Relationship between hepatic DNA damage and methylene chloride-induced hepatocarcinogenicity in B6C3F1 mice.","volume":"15","author":"Graves","year":"1994","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/16.8.1919","article-title":"Methylene chloride-induced DNA damage: an interspecies comparison.","volume":"16","author":"Graves","year":"1995","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1218(95)00087-9","article-title":"Mouse liver glutathione S-transferase mediated metabolism of methylene chloride to a mutagen in the CHO\/HPRT assay.","volume":"367","author":"Graves","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mutat Res"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/0960327197016001021","article-title":"Methylene chloride induced mouse liver and lung tumours: an overview of the role of mechanistic studies in human safety assessment.","volume":"16","author":"Green","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hum Exp Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1248\/jhs1956.43.69","article-title":"Mechanisms of mutagenicity of DNA adducts derived from alkyl and vinyl halides.","volume":"43","author":"Guengerich","year":"1997","journal-title":"Jpn J Toxicol Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1006\/rtph.2001.1517","article-title":"Genetic polymorphisms in assessing interindividual variability in delivered dose.","volume":"35","author":"Haber","year":"2002","journal-title":"Regul Toxicol Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1021\/tx00039a004","article-title":"Bioactivation of [13C]dichloromethane in mouse, rat, and human liver cytosol: 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic studies.","volume":"7","author":"Hashimi","year":"1994","journal-title":"Chem Res Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit32","unstructured":"Hazleton Laboratories.\n          \n          1983. 24-Month Oncogenicity Study of Methylene Chloride in Mice: Final Report. Report 45-8303005. Rockville, MD:Hazleton Laboratories America Inc.Available: https:\/\/ntrl.ntis.gov\/NTRL\/dashboard\/searchResults.xhtml?searchQuery=OTS0505606 [accessed 14 May 2014]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrgentox.2006.04.013","article-title":"Induction of DNA\u2013protein crosslinks by dichloromethane in a V79 cell line transfected with the murine glutathione-S-transferase theta 1 gene.","volume":"607","author":"Hu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mutat Res"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7707","article-title":"Maternal exposure to occupational solvents and childhood leukemia.","volume":"113","author":"Infante-Rivard","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit35","first-page":"21","article-title":"Purification, characterization and tissue distribution of human class theta glutathione S-transferase T1-1.","volume":"39","author":"Juronen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biochem Mol Biol Int"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit36","first-page":"418","article-title":"Neurotoxic effects of methylene chloride: are they long lasting in humans?","volume":"48","author":"Lash","year":"1991","journal-title":"Br J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-69080-3_64","article-title":"Gene expression of 17\u03b2-estradiol-metabolizing isozymes: comparison of normal human mammary gland to normal human liver and to cultured human breast adenocarcinoma cells.","volume":"617","author":"Lehmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0272-4332.2003.00397.x","article-title":"The impact of cytochrome P450 2E1-dependent metabolic variance on a risk-relevant pharmacokinetic outcome in humans.","volume":"23","author":"Lipscomb","year":"2003","journal-title":"Risk Anal"},{"issue":"pt 1","key":"2026080605032087500_micit39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3180297","article-title":"The distribution of theta-class glutathione S-transferases in the liver and lung of mouse, rat and human.","volume":"318","author":"Mainwaring","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biochem J"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(86)90123-7","article-title":"A physiological pharmacokinetic model for dermal absorption of vapors in the rat.","volume":"85","author":"McDougal","year":"1986","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1988.tb30121.x","article-title":"Inhalation toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of methylene chloride (dichloromethane) in F344\/N rats and B6C3F1 mice.","volume":"534","author":"Mennear","year":"1988","journal-title":"Ann NY Acad Sci"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ede.0000231279.30988.4d","article-title":"Occupational exposure to solvents and the risk of lymphomas.","volume":"17","author":"Miligi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit43","unstructured":"National Research Council.\n          \n          1983. Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process. Washington, DC:National Academies Press.Available: http:\/\/www.nap.edu\/openbook.php?record_id=366 [accessed 14 May 2014]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit44","unstructured":"National Research Council.\n          \n          1994. Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment. Washington, DC:National Academies Press.Available: http:\/\/www.nap.edu\/openbook.php?isbn=030904894X [accessed 14 May 2014]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/0272-0590(88)90269-2","article-title":"Methylene chloride: a 2-year inhalation toxicity and oncogenicity study in rats.","volume":"11","author":"Nitschke","year":"1988","journal-title":"Fundam Appl Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit46","unstructured":"NTP (National Toxicology Program).\n          \n          1986. NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride) (CAS No. 75-09-2) in F344\/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies). National Toxicology Program, Technical Report Series, No. 306.Available: http:\/\/ntp.niehs.nih.gov\/ntp\/htdocs\/lt_rpts\/tr306.pdf [accessed 14 May 2014]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2010.09.002","article-title":"Susceptibility to the cytogenetic effects of dichloromethane is related to the glutathione S-transferase theta phenotype.","volume":"199","author":"Olvera-Bello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Toxicol Lett"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit48","first-page":"31","article-title":"Health evaluation of employees occupationally exposed to methylene chloride: metabolism data and oxygen half-saturation pressures.","volume":"9","author":"Ott","year":"1983","journal-title":"Scand J Work Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1006\/taap.1997.8123","article-title":"Glutathione S-transferase-mediated mutagenicity of trihalomethanes in Salmonella typhimurium: contrasting results with bromodichloromethane off chloroform.","volume":"144","author":"Pegram","year":"1997","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit50","first-page":"97","article-title":"A comparative study of the effects of carbon monoxide and methylene chloride on human performance.","volume":"2","author":"Putz","year":"1979","journal-title":"J Environ Pathol Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-008X(89)90328-1","article-title":"In vitro metabolism of methylene chloride in human and animal tissues: use in physiologically based pharmacokinetic models.","volume":"97","author":"Reitz","year":"1989","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S1383-5718(98)00114-4","article-title":"Detection of in vivo genotoxicity of haloalkanes and haloalkenes carcinogenic to rodents by the alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay in multiple mouse organs.","volume":"419","author":"Sasaki","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mutat Res"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/1745-6673-2-2","article-title":"Solvent exposure and malignant lymphoma: a population-based case-control study in Germany.","volume":"2","author":"Seidler","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Occup Med Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-6915(86)90323-6","article-title":"A two-year drinking-water study of dichloromethane in rodents. I. Rats.","volume":"24","author":"Serota","year":"1986","journal-title":"Food Chem Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-6915(86)90324-8","article-title":"A two-year drinking-water study of dichloromethane in rodents. II. Mice.","volume":"24","author":"Serota","year":"1986","journal-title":"Food Chem Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1093\/mutage\/2.1.57","article-title":"Inactivity of methylene chloride in the mouse bone marrow micronucleus assay.","volume":"2","author":"Sheldon","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mutagenesis"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1006\/taap.2002.9348","article-title":"Direct comparison of the nature of mouse and human GST T1-1 and the implications on dichloromethane carcinogenicity.","volume":"179","author":"Sherratt","year":"2002","journal-title":"Toxicol Appl Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit58","first-page":"282","article-title":"An evaluation of chronic methylene chloride exposure.","volume":"35","author":"Soden","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Occup Med"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1080\/00028896409342621","article-title":"Absorption of carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, methylene chloride, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane through the human skin.","volume":"25","author":"Stewart","year":"1964","journal-title":"Am Ind Hyg Assoc J"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8576","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.90.18.8576","article-title":"Expression of mammalian glutathione S-transferase 5-5 in Salmonella typhimurium TA1535 leads to base-pair mutations upon exposure to dihalomethanes.","volume":"90","author":"Thier","year":"1993","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit61","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).\n          \n          2002. 1996 Modeled Ambient Concentration for Methylene Chloride (CAS# 75092). Washington, DC:U.S. EPA.Available: http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ttn\/atw\/nata\/pdf\/meth_chlor_conc.pdf [accessed 14 January 2015]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit62","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).\n          \n          2011. Toxicological Review of Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride) (CAS No. 75-09-2) in Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). EPA\/635\/R-10\/003F.Available: http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/iris\/toxreviews\/0070tr.pdf [accessed 6 March 2012]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit63","unstructured":"U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency).\n          \n          2015. TRI Explorer (2012 Data Update released March 2014) [Internet database].Available: http:\/\/iaspub.epa.gov\/triexplorer\/release_chem?p_view=USCH&trilib=TRIQ2&sort=_VIEW_&sort_fmt=1&state=All+states&county=All+counties&chemical=000075092&industry=ALL&year=2012&tab_rpt=1&fld=RELLBY&fld=TSFDSP [accessed 12 January 2015]."},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwn300","article-title":"Occupational exposure to solvents and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Connecticut women.","volume":"169","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1097\/00008571-199412000-00003","article-title":"Polymorphic distribution of glutathione transferase activity with methyl chloride in human blood.","volume":"4","author":"Warholm","year":"1994","journal-title":"Pharmacogenetics"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1021\/tx060087n","article-title":"Limited reactivity of formyl chloride with glutathione and relevance to metabolism and toxicity of dichloromethane.","volume":"19","author":"Watanabe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chem Res Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080605032087500_micit67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.2550100203","article-title":"Further evidence that dichloromethane does not induce chromosome damage.","volume":"10","author":"Westbrook-Collins","year":"1990","journal-title":"J Appl Toxicol"}],"container-title":["Environmental Health Perspectives"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-pdf\/123\/2\/114\/66430676\/ehp.1308030.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-pdf\/123\/2\/114\/66430676\/ehp.1308030.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T13:47:31Z","timestamp":1786628851000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-lookup\/doi\/10.1289\/ehp.1308030"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1289\/ehp.1308030","relation":{},"ISSN":["0091-6765","1552-9924"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0091-6765","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-9924","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,17]]}}}