{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T14:37:14Z","timestamp":1786631834849,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,29]],"date-time":"2017-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1514505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":689,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Ecologic analyses, case\u2013case comparisons, and animal experiments suggest positive associations between air pollution and tuberculosis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We evaluated this hypothesis in a large sample, which yielded results that are applicable to the general population.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We conducted a case\u2013control study nested within a cohort of Kaiser Permanente of Northern California members. All active pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) cases newly diagnosed between 1996 and 2010 (n = 2,309) were matched to two controls (n = 4,604) by age, sex, and race\/ethnicity on the index date corresponding with the case diagnosis date. Average individual-level concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), and particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter \u2264 2.5 \u03bcm (PM2.5) and 10 \u03bcm (PM10) for 2 years before diagnosis\/entry into the study were estimated using measurements from the California Air Resources Board monitor closest to the participant\u2019s residence.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In single-pollutant adjusted conditional logistic regression models, the pulmonary TB odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for the highest quintile (vs. lowest) were 1.50 (95% CI: 1.15, 1.95) for CO and 1.42 (95% CI: 1.10, 1.84) for NO2. Corresponding estimates were higher among never [1.68 (95% CI: 1.26, 2.24)] than ever [1.19 (95% CI: 0.74, 1.92)] smokers for CO. In contrast, for NO2, estimates were higher among ever [1.81 (95% CI: 1.13, 2.91)] than never [1.29 (95% CI: 0.97, 1.71)] smokers. O3 was inversely associated for smokers [0.66 (95% CI: 0.43, 1.02)] and never smokers [0.65 (95% CI: 0.52, 0.81)]. No other consistent patterns were observed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In this first, to our knowledge, U.S. nested case\u2013control study on air pollution and pulmonary TB, we observed positive associations with ambient CO and NO2, which require confirmation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Citation:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Smith GS, Van Den Eeden SK, Garcia C, Shan J, Baxter R, Herring AH, Richardson DB, Van Rie A, Emch M, Gammon MD. 2016. Air pollution and pulmonary tuberculosis: a nested case-control study among members of a Northern California health plan. Environ Health Perspect 124:761\u2013768;\u2002http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1289\/ehp.1408166<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1408166","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,9]],"date-time":"2016-02-09T11:48:09Z","timestamp":1455018489000},"page":"761-768","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":118,"title":["Air Pollution and Pulmonary Tuberculosis: A Nested Case\u2013Control Study among Members of a Northern California Health Plan"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"124","author":[{"given":"Gene\u00e9 S.","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen K.","family":"Van Den Eeden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, California, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cynthia","family":"Garcia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, California, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Shan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, California, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roger","family":"Baxter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, California, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy H.","family":"Herring","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics,"},{"name":"Carolina Population Center, and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David B.","family":"Richardson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annelies","family":"Van Rie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Emch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA"},{"name":"Carolina Population Center, and"},{"name":"Department of Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marilie D.","family":"Gammon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10952","article-title":"A cohort study of traffic-related air pollution impacts on birth outcomes.","volume":"116","author":"Brauer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit2","first-page":"5","article-title":"Effects of long-term exposure on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality in the Netherlands: the NLCS-AIR Study.","volume":"139","author":"Brunekreef","year":"2009","journal-title":"Res Rep Health Eff Inst"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit3","unstructured":"CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)\n          . 2011. Fact Sheets. Tuberculosis: General Information.Available: http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tb\/publications\/factsheets\/general\/tb.htm [accessed 9 May 2012]."},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6391","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(01)00378-8","article-title":"Analysis of the relationship between ambient levels of O3, NO2 and NO as a function of NOx in the UK.","volume":"35","author":"Clapp","year":"2001","journal-title":"Atmos Environ"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e142","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040142","article-title":"Pollution and tuberculosis: outdoor sources.","volume":"4","author":"Cohen","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit6","first-page":"153","article-title":"Cytokines in mycobacterial infections: in vitro and ex vivo studies.","volume":"43","author":"Flad","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz)"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1186\/1465-9921-6-136","article-title":"Membrane TNF confers protection to acute mycobacterial infection.","volume":"6","author":"Fremond","year":"2005","journal-title":"Respir Res"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2006.12.007","article-title":"The influence of highway traffic on ambient nitrogen dioxide concentrations beyond the immediate vicinity of highways.","volume":"41","author":"Gilbert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Atmos Environ"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit9","article-title":"How Does the Adult Kaiser Permanente Membership in Northern California Compare with the Larger Community?","author":"Gordon NP","year":"2006"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.79.3.340","article-title":"Modeling and variable selection in epidemiologic analysis.","volume":"79","author":"Greenland","year":"1989","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S201","DOI":"10.1590\/S0036-36342006000700024","article-title":"The association between smoking and tuberculosis.","volume":"48(suppl 1)","author":"Hassmiller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Salud Publica Mex"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit12","article-title":"Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A Critical Review of the Literature on Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects. HEI Special Report 17.","author":"HEI (Health Effects Institute Panel on the Health Effects of Traffic-Related Air Pollution)","year":"2010"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1080\/01902140590918786","article-title":"The effects of inhalation of diesel exhaust on murine mycobacterial infection.","volume":"31","author":"Hiramatsu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp Lung Res"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.05.057","article-title":"A review of land-use regression models to assess spatial variation of outdoor air pollution.","volume":"42","author":"Hoek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos Environ"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit15","article-title":"Air Pollution and Health.","author":"Holgate ST, Samet JM, Koren HS, Maynard RL, eds","year":"1999"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit16","article-title":"Applied Logistic Regression.","author":"Hosmer DW, Lemeshow S","year":"1989"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit17","unstructured":"IMPROVE (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments)\n          . 2012. IMROVE Data Resources.Available: http:\/\/vista.cira.colostate.edu\/improve\/data\/data.htm [accessed 5 June 2012]."},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2004.11.004","article-title":"Correlation between suspended particles in the environmental air and causes of disease among inhabitants: cross-sectional studies using the vital statistics and air pollution data in Japan.","volume":"99","author":"Iwai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2012.12.030","article-title":"Correlation of ambient pollution levels and heavily-trafficked roadway proximity on the prevalence of smear-positive tuberculosis.","volume":"127","author":"Jassal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500388","article-title":"A review and evaluation of intraurban air pollution exposure models.","volume":"15","author":"Jerrett","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201012-2082OC","article-title":"Long-term exposure to air pollution and cardiorespiratory disease in the California Teachers Study Cohort.","volume":"184","author":"Lipsett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e20","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040020","article-title":"Tobacco Smoke, Indoor Air Pollution and Tuberculosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.","volume":"4","author":"Lin","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Med."},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2406","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0809497","article-title":"Overseas screening for tuberculosis in U.S.-bound immigrants and refugees.","volume":"360","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.53.4.241","article-title":"Chronic respiratory symptoms in children and adults living along streets with high traffic density.","volume":"53","author":"Oosterlee","year":"1996","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1995.03520270054031","article-title":"Global epidemiology of tuberculosis: morbidity and mortality of a worldwide epidemic.","volume":"273","author":"Raviglione","year":"1995","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit26","first-page":"139","article-title":"Modern Epidemiology. 3rd ed.","author":"Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL","year":"2012"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1080\/019021402753570509","article-title":"Effects of diesel exhaust on murine alveolar macrophages and a macrophage cell line.","volume":"28","author":"Saito","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp Lung Res"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1080\/01902140290096764","article-title":"Long-term inhalation of diesel exhaust affects cytokine expression in murine lung tissues: comparison between low- and high-dose diesel exhaust exposure.","volume":"28","author":"Saito","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp Lung Res"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e3181a819a1","article-title":"Overadjustment bias and unnecessary adjustment in epidemiologic studies.","volume":"20","author":"Schisterman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit30","first-page":"17","article-title":"Influence of seasonal and environmental factors on the incidence of tuberculosis [in Russian].","volume":"2","author":"Shilova","year":"2004","journal-title":"Probl Tuberk Bolezn Legk"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1080\/09603123.2013.800959","article-title":"Particulate air pollution and susceptibility to the development of pulmonary tuberculosis disease in North Carolina: an ecological study.","volume":"24","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J Environ Health Res"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12013","article-title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations between indoor air pollution and tuberculosis.","volume":"18","author":"Sumpter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit33","first-page":"722","article-title":"Historical statistics support a hypothesis linking tuberculosis and air pollution caused by coal.","volume":"11","author":"Tremblay","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit34","article-title":"Final Report: Integrated Science Assessment for Oxides of Nitrogen \u2013 Health Criteria. EPA\/600\/R-08\/071.","author":"U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)","year":"2008"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit35","unstructured":"U.S. EPA\n          . 2008b. NAAQS Table.Available: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/criteria-air-pollutants\/naaqs-table [accessed 5 February 2009]."},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit36","article-title":"Final Assessment: Integrated Science Assessment for Carbon Monoxide. EPA\/600\/R-09\/019F.","author":"U.S. EPA","year":"2010"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit37","article-title":"Final Report: Integrated Science Assessment of Ozone and Related Photochemical Oxidants. EPA\/600\/R-10\/076F.","author":"U.S. EPA","year":"2013"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit38","article-title":"WHO Report 2010: Global Tuberculosis Control 2010.","author":"WHO (World Health Organization)","year":"2010"},{"key":"2026080506030764700_micit39","unstructured":"WHO\n          . 2011. Ambient (Outdoor) Air Quality and Health. Fact Sheet No. 313.Available: http:\/\/www.who.int\/mediacentre\/factsheets\/fs313\/en\/ [accessed 14 September 2011]."}],"container-title":["Environmental Health Perspectives"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-pdf\/124\/6\/761\/66403367\/ehp.1408166.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-pdf\/124\/6\/761\/66403367\/ehp.1408166.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T13:48:08Z","timestamp":1786628888000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-lookup\/doi\/10.1289\/ehp.1408166"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,9]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,9]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1289\/ehp.1408166","relation":{},"ISSN":["0091-6765","1552-9924"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0091-6765","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-9924","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,9]]}}}