{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T00:37:45Z","timestamp":1791765465066,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,29]],"date-time":"2017-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1514505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":4971,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,6,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Poisoning by acute high-level exposure to certain pesticides has well-known neurotoxic effects, but whether chronic exposure to moderate levels of pesticides is also neurotoxic is more controversial. Most studies of moderate pesticide exposure have found increased prevalence of neurologic symptoms and changes in neurobehavioral performance, reflecting cognitive and psychomotor dysfunction. There is less evidence that moderate exposure is related to deficits in sensory or motor function or peripheral nerve conduction, but fewer studies have considered these outcomes. It is possible that the most sensitive manifestation of pesticide neurotoxicity is a general malaise lacking in specificity and related to mild cognitive dysfunction, similar to that described for Gulf War syndrome. Most studies have focused on organophosphate insecticides, but some found neuro-toxic effects from other pesticides, including fungicides, fumigants, and organochlorine and carbamate insecticides. Pesticide exposure may also be associated with increased risk of Parkinson disease; several classes of pesticides, including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, have been implicated. Studies of other neurodegenerative diseases are limited and inconclusive. Future studies will need to improve assessment of pesticide exposure in individuals and consider the role of genetic susceptibility. More studies of pesticides other than organophosphates are needed. Major unresolved issues include the relative importance of acute and chronic exposure, the effect of moderate exposure in the absence of poisoning, and the relationship of pesticide-related neurotoxicity to neurodegenerative disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,20]],"date-time":"2004-05-20T11:22:09Z","timestamp":1085052129000},"page":"950-958","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":525,"title":["Association of Pesticide Exposure with Neurologic Dysfunction and Disease"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"112","author":[{"given":"Freya","family":"Kamel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jane A.","family":"Hoppin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123020","article-title":"Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity","volume":"25","author":"Alavanja","year":"2004","journal-title":"Annu Rev Public Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1995.9935980","article-title":"Chronic neurologic sequelae to cholinesterase inhibition among agricultural pesticide applicators","volume":"50","author":"Ames","year":"1995","journal-title":"Arch Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit3","first-page":"137","article-title":"Neurobehavioral evaluation of soil and structural fumigators using methyl bromide and sulfuryl fluoride","volume":"7","author":"Anger","year":"1986","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit4","first-page":"837","article-title":"Lessons learned\u201415 years of the WHO-NCTB: a review","volume":"21","author":"Anger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1006\/enrs.1997.3707","article-title":"Human neurobehavioral research methods: impact of subject variables","volume":"73","author":"Anger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1080\/08941929809381121","article-title":"Chronic agricultural chemical exposure among migrant and seasonal farmworkers","volume":"11","author":"Arcury","year":"1998","journal-title":"Soc Nat Resour"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0404.2003.00128.x","article-title":"Lifestyle-related risk factors for Parkinson\u2019s disease: a population-based study","volume":"108","author":"Baldereschi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Acta Neurol Scand"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1159\/000071194","article-title":"Association between Parkinson\u2019s disease and exposure to pesticides in southwestern France","volume":"22","author":"Baldi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.01109839","article-title":"Neuropsychologic effects of long-term exposure to pesticides: results from the French Phytoner study","volume":"109","author":"Baldi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwf216","article-title":"Neurodegenerative diseases and exposure to pesticides in the elderly","volume":"157","author":"Baldi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.1105","article-title":"Parkinsonism after glycine-derivate exposure","volume":"16","author":"Barbosa","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit12","first-page":"819","article-title":"Behavioral effects of occupational exposure to organophosphorous pesticides in female greenhouse planting workers","volume":"20","author":"Bazylewicz-Walczak","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.53.8.520","article-title":"Abnormalities on neurological examination among sheep farmers exposed to organophosphorous pesticides","volume":"53","author":"Beach","year":"1996","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-510X(01)00578-0","article-title":"Risk factors of Parkinson\u2019s disease in Indian patients","volume":"190","author":"Behari","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit15","first-page":"325","article-title":"Biochemical effects of chronic moderate exposure to pesticides","volume":"9","author":"Bellin","year":"1974","journal-title":"Res Comm Chem Pathol Pharmacol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1038\/81834","article-title":"Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"3","author":"Betarbet","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat Neurosci"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1467","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.52.7.1467","article-title":"Acute and reversible parkinsonism due to organophosphate pesticide intoxication: five cases","volume":"52","author":"Bhatt","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.4819.1068","article-title":"Paralysis following poisoning by a new organic phosphorus insecticide (Mipafox): report on two cases","volume":"1","author":"Bidstrup","year":"1953","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02685-4","article-title":"Pesticide exposure and risk of mild cognitive dysfunction","volume":"356","author":"Bosma","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.58.11.694","article-title":"Estimation of cumulative exposure to organophosphate sheep dips in a study of chronic neurological health effects among United Kingdom sheep dippers","volume":"58","author":"Buchanan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.58.1.24","article-title":"Mortality in chemical workers potentially exposed to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) 1945-94: an update","volume":"58","author":"Burns","year":"2001","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.43.6.1150","article-title":"Environmental antecedents of young-onset Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"43","author":"Butterfield","year":"1993","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.88.12.1774","article-title":"Health effects associated with sulfuryl fluoride and methyl bromide exposure among structural fumigation workers","volume":"88","author":"Calvert","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.10309","article-title":"Acute occupational pesticide-related illness in the US, 1998\u20131999: surveillance findings from the SENSOR-pesticides program","volume":"45","author":"Calvert","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.56.11.1200","article-title":"Risk factors for motor neuron disease\u2014a case-control study based on patients from the Scottish motor neuron disease register","volume":"56","author":"Chancellor","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.84.3.446","article-title":"Pesticide exposures, cholinesterase depression, and symptoms among North Carolina migrant farmworkers","volume":"84","author":"Ciesielski","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am J Publ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1080\/009841098158520","article-title":"Assessment of peripheral nerve function in an Ecuadorian rural population exposed to pesticides","volume":"55","author":"Cole","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Toxicol Environ Health A"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0892-0362(97)00019-6","article-title":"Neurobehavioral outcomes among farm and nonfarm rural Ecuadorians","volume":"19","author":"Cole","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1080\/009841000156907","article-title":"Organochlorine insecticides in substantia nigra in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"59","author":"Corrigan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Toxicol Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1081\/CLT-120018269","article-title":"Polymorphisms of paraoxonase (PON1) and their significance in clinical toxicology of organophosphates","volume":"41","author":"Costa","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Toxicol Clin Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-9351(05)80241-5","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance among agricultural pesticide applicators","volume":"59","author":"Daniell","year":"1992","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit32","first-page":"597","article-title":"A study of the chronic effects of insecticides in man","volume":"92","author":"Davignon","year":"1965","journal-title":"Can Med Assoc J"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-197803000-00010","article-title":"Single case study. Possible organophosphate induced parkinsonism","volume":"166","author":"Davis","year":"1978","journal-title":"J Nerv Ment Dis"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a114308","article-title":"A case-control study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"123","author":"Deapen","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/S0892-0362(01)00143-X","article-title":"Evaluation of acute sensory-motor effects and test sensitivity using termiticide workers exposed to chlorpyrifos","volume":"23","author":"Dick","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit36","first-page":"245","article-title":"A quantitative approach for estimating exposure to pesticides in the Agricultural Health Study","volume":"46","author":"Dosemeci","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann Occup Hyg"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.58.9.582","article-title":"Parkinsonism and occupational exposure to pesticides","volume":"58","author":"Engel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1080\/00039899809605684","article-title":"Neurophysiological function in farm workers exposed to organophosphate pesticides","volume":"53","author":"Engel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arch Environ Health"},{"issue":"suppl 3","key":"2026080406014141500_micit39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.99107s3409","article-title":"Exposures of children to organophosphate pesticides and their potential adverse health effects","volume":"107","author":"Eskenazi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1002\/1531-8257(199901)14:1<28::AID-MDS1007>3.0.CO;2-O","article-title":"Nutritional and occupational factors influencing the risk of Parkinson\u2019s disease: a case-control study in southeastern Sweden","volume":"14","author":"Fall","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.60.4.279","article-title":"Neurobehavioral effects among workers occupationally exposed to organophosphorous pesticides","volume":"60","author":"Farahat","year":"2003","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit42","first-page":"221","article-title":"Pesticide exposure assessment of workers and their families","volume":"12","author":"Fenske","year":"1997","journal-title":"Occup Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1491","DOI":"10.1373\/49.9.1491","article-title":"Regulation of serum paraoxonase activity by genetic, nutritional, and lifestyle factors in the general population","volume":"49","author":"Ferre","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin Chem"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0274(199711)32:5<487::AID-AJIM8>3.0.CO;2-P","article-title":"Long-term use of organophosphates and neuropsychological performance","volume":"32","author":"Fiedler","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410360119","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease and brain levels of organochlorine pesticides","volume":"36","author":"Fleming","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1993.tb04187.x","article-title":"Chronic motor neuron disease possibly related to intoxication with organochlorine insecticides","volume":"88","author":"Fonseca","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Neurol Scand"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1006\/enrs.2001.4254","article-title":"Environmental pesticide exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a case-control study","volume":"86","author":"Gauthier","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0274(199812)34:6<581::AID-AJIM6>3.0.CO;2-U","article-title":"Exposure opportunities of families of farmer pesticide applicators","volume":"34","author":"Gladen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.301","article-title":"Morbidity among farm workers in a desert country in relation to long-term exposure to pesticides","volume":"24","author":"Gomes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Scand J Work Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1007\/s004200050332","article-title":"The influence of personal protection, environmental hygiene and exposure to pesticides on the health of immigrant farm workers in a desert country","volume":"72","author":"Gomes","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int Arch Occup Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.50.5.1346","article-title":"The risk of Parkinson\u2019s disease with exposure to pesticides, farming, well water, and rural living","volume":"50","author":"Gorell","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.38.10.1604","article-title":"Motor neuron disease in the province of Ferrara, Italy, in 1964\u20131982","volume":"38","author":"Granieri","year":"1988","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit53","first-page":"791","article-title":"A case-control study of motor neurone disease - Its relation to heritability, and occupational exposures, particularly to solvents","volume":"49","author":"Gunnarsson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Br J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1017\/S0317167100052835","article-title":"A case-control study of Parkinson\u2019s disease in urban population of southern Israel","volume":"28","author":"Herishanu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Can J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.10008","article-title":"Evaluation of Mexican American migrant farmworker work practices and organochlorine pesticide metabolites","volume":"40","author":"Hernandez-Valero","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.4700170307","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease: a case-control study of occupational and environmental risk factors","volume":"17","author":"Hertzman","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(96)00026-8","article-title":"Analyzing multivariate neurobehavioral outcomes in occupational studies: a comparison of approaches","volume":"18","author":"Heyer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1093\/annhyg\/45.3.227","article-title":"Distributions and determinants of pre-emergent herbicide exposures among custom applicators","volume":"45","author":"Hines","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann Occup Hyg"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(88)91573-5","article-title":"Dithiocarbamates and Parkinson\u2019s disease [Letter]","volume":"1","author":"Hoogenraad","year":"1988","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1097\/00043764-199905000-00010","article-title":"A multimodality assessment of peripheral nerve function in organophosphate-pesticide applicators","volume":"41","author":"Horowitz","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1159\/000026159","article-title":"Genetoxin interaction as a putative risk factor for Parkinson\u2019s disease with dementia","volume":"17","author":"Hubble","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.59.7.434","article-title":"A clinical neurological, neuro-physiological, and neuropsychological study of sheep farmers and dippers exposed to organophosphate pesticides","volume":"59","author":"Jamal","year":"2002","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0274(200006)37:6<618::AID-AJIM6>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Retinal degeneration in licensed pesticide applicators","volume":"37","author":"Kamel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.6341","article-title":"Neurobehavioral performance and work experience in Florida farmworkers","volume":"111","author":"Kamel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-9351(05)80242-7","article-title":"Organophosphate pesticide exposure in a group of Washington State orchard applicators","volume":"59","author":"Karr","year":"1992","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit66","first-page":"291","article-title":"Chronic neurologic effects of pesticide overexposure","volume":"12","author":"Keifer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Occup Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.3109\/15563657708989822","article-title":"Effects of chronic organophosphate pesticide exposure on the central nervous system","volume":"11","author":"Korsak","year":"1977","journal-title":"Clin Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1002\/1531-8257(199911)14:6<928::AID-MDS1004>3.0.CO;2-Z","article-title":"Environmental risk factors in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Kuopio","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mov Disord"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/S0753-3322(99)80077-8","article-title":"Pesticides and Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"53","author":"Le Couteur","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1097\/01.jom.0000052953.59271.e1","article-title":"Association between human paraoxonase gene polymorphism and chronic symptoms in pesticide-exposed workers","volume":"45","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.56.7.449","article-title":"Role of individual susceptibility in risk assessment of pesticides","volume":"56","author":"Leng","year":"1999","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(96)00041-4","article-title":"Development of a computer-based battery designed to screen adults for neuropsychological impairment","volume":"18","author":"Letz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1976.01770020061010","article-title":"Anxiety associated with exposure to organophosphate compounds","volume":"33","author":"Levin","year":"1976","journal-title":"Arch Gen Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.28.3.526","article-title":"The Canadian Study of Health and Aging: risk factors for vascular dementia","volume":"28","author":"Lindsay","year":"1997","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.48.6.1583","article-title":"Environmental risk factors and Parkinson\u2019s disease: a case-control study in Taiwan","volume":"48","author":"Liou","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1179\/oeh.2002.8.1.46","article-title":"Pesticide usage and health consequences for women in developing countries: out of sight, out of mind?","volume":"8","author":"London","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J Occup Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.55.3.194","article-title":"Use of a crop and job specific exposure matrix for retrospective assessment of long-term exposure in studies of chronic neurotoxic effects of agri-chemicals","volume":"55","author":"London","year":"1998","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1006\/enrs.1997.3715","article-title":"An investigation into neurologic and neurobehavioral effects of long-term agrichemical use among deciduous fruit farm workers in the western cape, South Africa","volume":"73","author":"London","year":"1997","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.274","article-title":"Effects of long-term organophosphate exposures on neurological symptoms, vibration sense and tremor among South African farm workers","volume":"24","author":"London","year":"1998","journal-title":"Scand J Work Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.54.5.343","article-title":"Evaluation of the Q16 questionnaire on neurotoxic symptoms and a review of its use","volume":"54","author":"Lundberg","year":"1997","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1097\/00008571-200302000-00004","article-title":"Paraoxonase and susceptibility to organophosphorus poisoning in farmers dipping sheep","volume":"13","author":"Mackness","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pharmacogenetics"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.4700120205","article-title":"A behavioral evaluation of pest control workers with short-term, low-level exposure to the organophosphate diazinon","volume":"12","author":"Maizlish","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit83","first-page":"615","article-title":"Hazards of closed pesticide mixing and loading systems\u2014the paradox of protective pechnology in the phird world","volume":"49","author":"McConnell","year":"1992","journal-title":"Br J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.4700250303","article-title":"Elevated quantitative vibrotactile threshold among workers previously poisoned with methamidophos and other organophosphate pesticides","volume":"25","author":"McConnell","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1006\/nbdi.2002.0507","article-title":"Environmental risk factors and Parkinson\u2019s disease: selective degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons caused by the herbicide paraquat","volume":"10","author":"McCormack","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurobiol Dis"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2073","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.44.11.2073","article-title":"The Canadian study of health and aging: risk factors for Alzheimer\u2019s disease in Canada","volume":"44","author":"McDowell","year":"1994","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a009070","article-title":"Occupational exposures and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a population-based case-control study","volume":"145","author":"McGuire","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.5271\/sjweh.1394","article-title":"Parkinsonism after chronic exposure to the fungicide maneb (manganese ethylene-bis-dithiocarbamate)","volume":"20","author":"Meco","year":"1994","journal-title":"Scand J Work Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1179\/oeh.2002.8.1.19","article-title":"Onset of grip- and pinch-strength impairment after acute poisonings with organophosphate insecticides","volume":"8","author":"Miranda","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J Occup Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-4274(85)90056-6","article-title":"Clinical and biochemical changes in chronically exposed organophosphate workers","volume":"24","author":"Misra","year":"1985","journal-title":"Toxicol Lett"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1177\/074823379300900512","article-title":"Environmental equity and pesticide exposure","volume":"9","author":"Moses","year":"1993","journal-title":"Toxicol Ind Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit92","first-page":"327","article-title":"Epidemiology of ALS","volume":"3","author":"Nelson","year":"1995\u20131996","journal-title":"Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.011091169","article-title":"Effects of sarin on the nervous system in rescue team staff members and police officers 3 years after the Tokyo subway sarin attack","volume":"109","author":"Nishiwaki","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-4878(99)00045-9","article-title":"Identification of determinants of pesticide exposure among Kenyan agricultural workers using empirical modelling","volume":"43","author":"Ohayo-Mitoko","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ann Occup Hyg"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.57.3.195","article-title":"Self reported symptoms and inhibition of acetyl-cholinesterase activity among Kenyan agricultural workers","volume":"57","author":"Ohayo-Mitoko","year":"2000","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1179\/oeh.1997.3.3.210","article-title":"Acetylcholinesterase inhibition as an indicator of organophosphate and carbamate poisoning in Kenyan agricultural workers","volume":"3","author":"Ohayo-Mitoko","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int J Occup Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.59.11.1787","article-title":"Plantation work and risk of Parkinson disease in a population-based longitudinal study","volume":"59","author":"Petrovitch","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.58.11.702","article-title":"An epidemiological study of the relations between exposure to organophosphate pesticides and indices of chronic peripheral neuropathy and neuropsychological abnormalities in sheep farmers and dippers","volume":"58","author":"Pilkington","year":"2001","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1080\/109374099281205","article-title":"Organophosphorus pesticides: do they all have the same mechanism of toxicity?","volume":"2","author":"Pope","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1006\/enrs.2001.4264","article-title":"Environmental risk factors and Parkinson\u2019s disease: a metaanalysis","volume":"86","author":"Priyadarshi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v60n1111","article-title":"Metrifonate: update on a new antidementia agent","volume":"60","author":"Ringman","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Clin Psychiatry"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/29.2.323","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease mortality and pesticide exposure in California 1984\u20131994","volume":"292","author":"Ritz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1975.10666651","article-title":"Occupational exposure to organophosphate pesticides: a neurobehavioral study","volume":"30","author":"Rodnitzky","year":"1975","journal-title":"Arch Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(91)90356-T","article-title":"Chronic central nervous system effects of acute organophosphate pesticide intoxication","volume":"338","author":"Rosenstock","year":"1991","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1994.9940381","article-title":"Effect of chronic mixed pesticide exposure on peripheral and autonomic nerve function","volume":"49","author":"Ruijten","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arch Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit106","first-page":"1196","article-title":"Health status of pesticide applicators: postural stability assessments","volume":"35","author":"Sack","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Occup Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.37.4.728","article-title":"Paraquat and Parkinson disease [Letter]","volume":"37","author":"Sanchez-Ramon","year":"1987","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1988.9934372","article-title":"Chronic neurological sequelae of acute organophosphate pesticide poisoning","volume":"43","author":"Savage","year":"1988","journal-title":"Arch Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1159\/000110279","article-title":"A case-control study of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"10","author":"Savettieri","year":"1991","journal-title":"Neuroepidemiology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.42.1.261","article-title":"Acute and persistent parkinsonism after use of diquat","volume":"42","author":"Sechi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.46.5.1275","article-title":"Possible environmental, occupational, and other etiologic factors for Parkinson\u2019s disease: a case-control study in Germany","volume":"46","author":"Seidler","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1328","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.42.7.1328","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease and exposure to agricultural work and pesticide chemicals","volume":"42","author":"Semchuk","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.10271","article-title":"Neurological symptoms among Sri Lankan farmers occupationally exposed to acetyl-cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides","volume":"44","author":"Smit","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1191\/0960327102ht244oa","article-title":"Effect of organophosphate intoxication on human serum paraoxonase","volume":"21","author":"Sozmen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum Exp Toxicol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1006\/enrs.2002.4398","article-title":"Pesticide illness, farm practices, and neurological symptoms among farm residents in Colorado","volume":"90","author":"Stallones","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.00108293","article-title":"Neurologic function among termiticide applicators exposed to chlorpyrifos","volume":"108","author":"Steenland","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.84.5.731","article-title":"Chronic neurological sequelae to organophosphate pesticide poisoning","volume":"84","author":"Steenland","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(96)00028-1","article-title":"Organophosphates: the relationship between chronic and acute exposure effects","volume":"18","author":"Stephens","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol Teratol"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(95)90976-1","article-title":"Neuropsychological effects of long-term exposure to organophosphates in sheep dip","volume":"345","author":"Stephens","year":"1995","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.1122","article-title":"A method for assessing occupational pesticide exposures of farmworkers","volume":"40","author":"Stewart","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.52.10.648","article-title":"Neurotoxicity among pesticide applicators exposed to organophosphates","volume":"52","author":"Stokes","year":"1995","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-8628(19991215)88:6<742::AID-AJMG29>3.0.CO;2-#","article-title":"Environmental, medical, and family history risk factors for Parkinson\u2019s disease: a New England-based case control study","volume":"88","author":"Taylor","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am J Med Genet"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9207","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.20-24-09207.2000","article-title":"The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system as a preferential target of repeated exposures to combined paraquat and maneb: implications for Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"20","author":"Thiruchelvam","year":"2000","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1080\/00028899908984503","article-title":"Exposure to fungicides in fruit growing: re-entry time as a predictor for dermal exposure","volume":"60","author":"Tielemans","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am Ind Hyg Assoc J"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit125","author":"U. S. EPA Office of Pesticide Programs"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)04249-5","article-title":"Chronic nervous-system effects of long-term occupational exposure to DDT","volume":"357","author":"van Wendel de Joode","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1515\/CCLM.2003.081","article-title":"PON1-192 phenotype and genotype assessments in 918 subjects of the Stanislas cohort study","volume":"41","author":"Vincent-Viry","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin Chem Lab Med"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1179\/oeh.2002.8.1.27","article-title":"Long-term neurobehavioral effects of mild poisonings with organophosphate and n-methyl carbamate pesticides among banana workers","volume":"8","author":"Wesseling","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int J Occup Environ Health"},{"key":"2026080406014141500_micit129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.1070","article-title":"Neuropsychological function in Gulf War Veterans: relationships to self-reported toxicant exposures","volume":"40","author":"White","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am J Ind Med"}],"container-title":["Environmental Health Perspectives"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-pdf\/112\/9\/950\/66379833\/ehp.7135.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-pdf\/112\/9\/950\/66379833\/ehp.7135.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T13:45:23Z","timestamp":1786628723000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/evhpaz\/article-lookup\/doi\/10.1289\/ehp.7135"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,20]]},"references-count":129,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,20]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,6,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1289\/ehp.7135","relation":{},"ISSN":["0091-6765","1552-9924"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0091-6765","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-9924","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,20]]}}}