{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T03:46:04Z","timestamp":1787629564652,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Optica Publishing Group","issue":"29","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]],"date-time":"2025-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759795200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OA_License_v2#VOR"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]],"date-time":"2025-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759795200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/policies\/opg-tdm-policy.json"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of\n\t\t\t\t\t\tChina","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62373285"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62373285"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of\n\t\t\t\t\t\tChina","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52305032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52305032"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012326","name":"International Science and Technology\n\t\t\t\t\t\tCooperation Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["24510713900"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24510713900"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012326","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100019445","name":"Shanghai Technology Innovation\n\t\t\t\t\t\tProject","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["XTCX-KJ-2024-49"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XTCX-KJ-2024-49"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100019445","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National High Level Overseas Talent\n\t\t\t\t\t\tPlan"},{"name":"National Major Talent\n\t\t\t\t\t\tPlan"},{"name":"Shanghai Pujiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\tProgramme","award":["23PJD103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23PJD103"]}]},{"name":"Shanghai Pujiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\tProgramme","award":["24PJD140"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24PJD140"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research\n\t\t\t\t\t\tProject","award":["XXXX2022YYYC133"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XXXX2022YYYC133"]}]},{"name":"National Laboratory of Space Intelligent\n\t\t\t\t\t\tControl","award":["HTKJ2023KL502016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HTKJ2023KL502016"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the\n\t\t\t\t\t\tCentral Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Shanghai Gaofeng Project for University\n\t\t\t\t\t\tAcademic Program Development"},{"name":"Sino-German Openmind Robotics Embodied AI\n\t\t\t\t\t\tChair Professorship"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["opg.optica.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Appl. Opt."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Precise detection of components on space non-cooperative targets under\n\t\t\t\t\tlow-light and small-scale conditions is critical for on-orbit\n\t\t\t\t\tservicing. To address the performance limitations of traditional\n\t\t\t\t\tdetectors in space environments, an end-to-end detection framework\n\t\t\t\t\tnamed space non-cooperative targets detector (SNCTD) is proposed.\n\t\t\t\t\tSNCTD integrates a low-light enhancement and denoising (LLED) module,\n\t\t\t\t\twhich is jointly optimized with the detection framework to improve\n\t\t\t\t\timage quality under variable illumination. Efficient feature\n\t\t\t\t\textraction is achieved through the hybrid downsampling (HyDown) and\n\t\t\t\t\trange-constrained sample (RSample) modules while the improved cross\n\t\t\t\t\tstage partial (ICSP) module ensures robust multi-scale feature fusion\n\t\t\t\t\twith reduced computational overhead. A high-resolution dataset\n\t\t\t\t\tcapturing diverse lighting and scale variations for non-cooperative\n\t\t\t\t\ttargets is also introduced to support training and evaluation.\n\t\t\t\t\tExperimental results indicate that SNCTD achieves notable improvements\n\t\t\t\t\tin detection accuracy over representative state-of-the-art models,\n\t\t\t\t\tparticularly for low-light and small-scale targets. With its\n\t\t\t\t\trobustness to illumination changes and computational efficiency, SNCTD\n\t\t\t\t\tis well suited for onboard visual systems in space missions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/ao.574780","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,15]],"date-time":"2025-09-15T14:00:10Z","timestamp":1757944810000},"page":"8777","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["SNCTD: a detector for space non-cooperative targets with low-light enhancement and small-scale feature fusion"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"64","author":[{"given":"Qirong","family":"Tang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03rc6as71","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Aircraft Mechanics and Control"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03rc6as71","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bowen","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Intelligent Control, Beijing Institute of Control Engineering"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rongfu","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03rc6as71","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haicheng","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03rc6as71","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenrui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03rc6as71","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"0291","DOI":"10.34133\/space.0291","type":"journal-article","volume":"5","author":"Fallahiarezoodar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4418","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2023.3282792","type":"journal-article","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom.\n\t\t\t\t\tLett."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","author":"Mahendrakar","year":"2023","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2301.09059","type":"preprint"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2020.3041077","type":"journal-article","volume":"2","author":"Xiqing","year":"2013","journal-title":"J.\n\t\t\t\t\tAstronaut."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1392","DOI":"10.7641\/CTA.2018.70895","type":"journal-article","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Control Theory Appl."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Performance\n\t\t\t\t\tstudy of YOLOv5 and faster R-CNN for autonomous navigation around\n\t\t\t\t\tnon-cooperative targets","volume-title":"IEEE aerospace\n\t\t\t\t\tconference (AERO)","author":"Mahendrakar","year":"2022"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.3901\/JME.2021.20.215","type":"journal-article","volume":"57","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mech.\n\t\t\t\t\tEng."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2023.3237809","type":"journal-article","volume":"72","author":"Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans.\n\t\t\t\t\tInstrum. Meas."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.3390\/aerospace9120761","type":"journal-article","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aerospace"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2023.108453","type":"journal-article","volume":"140","author":"Xiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4842-6168-2_11","article-title":"Mobilenetv3","volume-title":"Convolutional Neural Networks with Swift for Tensorflow:\n\t\t\t\t\tImage Recognition and Dataset Categorization","author":"Koonce","year":"2021"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R13","first-page":"78","article-title":"Mobilenetv4: universal models for the mobile\n\t\t\t\t\tecosystem","volume-title":"European Conference on Computer\n\t\t\t\t\tVision","author":"Qin","year":"2024"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","author":"Khanam","year":"2024","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2410.17725","type":"preprint"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R17","first-page":"1440","article-title":"Fast R-CNN","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on\n\t\t\t\t\tComputer Vision","author":"Girshick","year":"2015"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3368","DOI":"10.3390\/rs16183368","type":"journal-article","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Remote\n\t\t\t\t\tSens."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s42405-023-00653-w","type":"journal-article","volume":"25","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J.\n\t\t\t\t\tAeronaut. Sp. Sci."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4083","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2020.2989063","type":"journal-article","volume":"56","author":"Kisantal","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron.\n\t\t\t\t\tSyst."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5347","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2023.3347584","type":"journal-article","volume":"24","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","author":"Musallam","year":"2021","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2104.05978","type":"preprint"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3761","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2022.09.045","type":"journal-article","volume":"71","author":"Zhao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sp. Res."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R24","first-page":"1","article-title":"Spaceyolo:\n\t\t\t\t\ta human-inspired model for real-time, on-board spacecraft feature\n\t\t\t\t\tdetection","volume-title":"IEEE Aerospace\n\t\t\t\t\tConference","author":"Mahendrakar","year":"2023"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6014905","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2024.3434537","type":"journal-article","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens.\n\t\t\t\t\tLett."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R26","first-page":"1334","article-title":"T-SCNN: a\n\t\t\t\t\ttwo-stage convolutional neural network for space target\n\t\t\t\t\trecognition","volume-title":"IEEE International Geoscience\n\t\t\t\t\tand Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)","author":"Wu","year":"2019"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4225","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2021.3063604","type":"journal-article","volume":"44","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R30","first-page":"234","article-title":"U-NET: convolutional networks\n\t\t\t\t\tfor biomedical image segmentation","volume-title":"18th\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Conference Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted\n\t\t\t\t\tIntervention\u2013MICCAI","author":"Ronneberger","year":"2015"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1007\/s11554-024-01436-6","type":"journal-article","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Real-Time Image\n\t\t\t\t\tProcess."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R32","first-page":"6027","article-title":"Learning to\n\t\t\t\t\tupsample by learning to sample","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF International Conference on\n\t\t\t\t\tComputer Vision","author":"Liu","year":"2023"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R33","first-page":"2553","article-title":"Multitask\n\t\t\t\t\tAET with orthogonal tangent regularity for dark object\n\t\t\t\t\tdetection","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Conference on Computer Vision","author":"Cui","year":"2021"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R34","first-page":"161","article-title":"Exposure fusion: a simple and\n\t\t\t\t\tpractical alternative to high dynamic range\n\t\t\t\t\tphotography","volume-title":"Computer Graphics\n\t\t\t\t\tForum","volume":"28","author":"Mertens","year":"2009"},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R35","first-page":"107984","type":"journal-article","volume":"37","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv.\n\t\t\t\t\tNeural Inf. Process. Syst."},{"key":"ao-64-29-8777-R36","first-page":"16965","article-title":"DETRs beat\n\t\t\t\t\tYOLOs on real-time object detection","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and\n\t\t\t\t\tPattern Recognition","author":"Zhao","year":"2024"}],"container-title":["Applied Optics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/viewmedia.cfm?URI=ao-64-29-8777&seq=0","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]],"date-time":"2025-10-07T15:42:34Z","timestamp":1759851754000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-64-29-8777"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"29","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/ao.574780","relation":{},"ISSN":["1559-128X","2155-3165"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1559-128X","type":"print"},{"value":"2155-3165","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Optica Publishing Group","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/AO.574780","name":"articlelink","label":"Crossref DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"research-article","name":"content_type","label":"Article type"},{"value":"Screened by Similarity Check","name":"cross_check","label":"Similarity check"},{"value":"Yes","order":0,"name":"peer_reviewed","label":"Peer reviewed","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"Single blind","order":1,"name":"review_process","label":"Review process","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"28 July 2025","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"14 September 2025","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"7 October 2025","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"\u00a9 2025 Optica Publishing Group. All rights, including\n\t\t\t\t\tfor text and data mining (TDM), Artificial Intelligence (AI) training,\n\t\t\t\t\tand similar technologies, are reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}