{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:13:28Z","timestamp":1785413608842,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Optica Publishing Group","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773619200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/OA_License_v2#VOR"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773619200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/policies\/opg-tdm-policy.json"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of\n\t\t\t\t\t\tChina","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["62172247"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62172247"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"},{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["opg.optica.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Appl. Opt."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>3D point cloud maps play a critical role in the autonomous localization\n\t\t\t\t\tand navigation of robots. However, when constructing point cloud maps\n\t\t\t\t\tusing scanning sensors such as LiDAR and cameras, the presence of\n\t\t\t\t\tdynamic objects in the environment can lead to map distortions and\n\t\t\t\t\t\u201cghost artifacts,\u201d resulting in map ping errors that severely impact\n\t\t\t\t\tthe robot\u2019s localization and navigation tasks. To address this issue,\n\t\t\t\t\twe propose a novel method, to our knowledge, based on height-density\n\t\t\t\t\toccupancy descriptors and density ratios, which effectively removes\n\t\t\t\t\tdynamic objects from 3D point cloud maps. First, we introduce the\n\t\t\t\t\theight-density occupancy descriptor, which utilizes the quantity of\n\t\t\t\t\tpoint clouds in the upper and lower layers to represent the height\n\t\t\t\t\tinformation of the current map. Subsequently, we propose strategies\n\t\t\t\t\tincluding the density ratio test, inner loop detection, and density\n\t\t\t\t\tratio deletion, overcoming the limitations of existing methods.\n\t\t\t\t\tThrough extensive evaluation on open-source datasets, our method\n\t\t\t\t\tdemonstrates superior performance in accurately removing dynamic\n\t\t\t\t\tobjects and correctly preserving static objects compared to\n\t\t\t\t\tstate-of-the-art approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/ao.588185","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T14:00:14Z","timestamp":1771336814000},"page":"3113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["HDID: a method for removing dynamic objects in\u00a0the 3D point cloud map"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"65","author":[{"given":"Pengfei","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/021cj6z65","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoming","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qingdao ZhyMap Information Technology Co., Ltd."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boxue","family":"Bi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The People\u2019s Hospital of Jimo Qingdao"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0132-1677","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zhibo","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/021cj6z65","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2020.2984780","type":"journal-article","volume":"38","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE\n\t\t\t\t\tSignal Process Mag."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5320","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS51168.2021.9636814","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Robust SLAM\n\t\t\t\t\tsystems: are we there yet?","volume-title":"IEEE\/RSJ\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems\n\t\t\t\t\t(IROS)","author":"Bujanca","year":"2021"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVCOMP.2014.10","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Challenges\n\t\t\t\t\tand state-of-the-art solutions to underwater slam","volume-title":"Symposium on Automation and Computation for Naval, Offshore\n\t\t\t\t\tand Subsea (NAVCOMP)","author":"Guth","year":"2014"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R5","first-page":"1681","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Dynamic object detection using\n\t\t\t\t\t3D LiDAR: a brief survey","volume-title":"15th\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Conference on Information and Communication Technology\n\t\t\t\t\tConvergence (ICTC)","author":"John","year":"2024"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.61927\/igmin167","type":"journal-article","volume":"2","author":"Rana Milon","year":"2024","journal-title":"IgMin Res."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2781132","type":"journal-article","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24190","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2022.3204917","type":"journal-article","volume":"23","author":"Park","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp.\n\t\t\t\t\tSyst."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R9","first-page":"4421","type":"journal-article","article-title":"RF-LIO:\n\t\t\t\t\tRemoval-first tightly-coupled lidar inertial odometry in high dynamic\n\t\t\t\t\tenvironments","volume-title":"IEEE\/RSJ International\n\t\t\t\t\tConference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)","author":"Qian","year":"2021"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6083","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.53.006083","type":"journal-article","volume":"53","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7988","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA46639.2022.9812356","type":"journal-article","article-title":"DynamicFilter: an online dynamic objects removal\n\t\t\t\t\tframework for highly dynamic environments","volume-title":"International Conference on Robotics and Automation\n\t\t\t\t\t(ICRA)","author":"Fan","year":"2022"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R12","first-page":"113","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Mapless online detection of\n\t\t\t\t\tdynamic objects in 3D lidar","volume-title":"16th\n\t\t\t\t\tConference on Computer and Robot Vision (CRV)","author":"Yoon","year":"2019"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R13","first-page":"3126","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Loam livox: A fast, robust,\n\t\t\t\t\thigh-precision LiDAR odometry and mapping package for LiDARs of small\n\t\t\t\t\tFoV","volume-title":"2020 IEEE International Con erence on\n\t\t\t\t\tRobotics and Automation (ICRA)","author":"Lin","year":"2020"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2018.2801797","type":"journal-article","volume":"3","author":"Schauer","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Rob. Autom.\n\t\t\t\t\tLett."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R15","first-page":"10758","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Remove, then revert: static\n\t\t\t\t\tpoint cloud map construction using multiresolution range\n\t\t\t\t\timages","volume-title":"IEEE\/RSJ International Conference\n\t\t\t\t\ton Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)","author":"Kim","year":"2020"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2021.3061363","type":"journal-article","volume":"6","author":"Lim","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Rob. Autom.\n\t\t\t\t\tLett."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2024.3361868","type":"journal-article","volume":"62","author":"Fang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote\n\t\t\t\t\tSens."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R18","first-page":"4213","type":"journal-article","article-title":"RangeNet++:\n\t\t\t\t\tFast and accurate LiDAR semantic segmentation","volume-title":"IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and\n\t\t\t\t\tSystems (IROS)","author":"Milioto","year":"2019"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R19","first-page":"10765","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Robust\n\t\t\t\t\tmethod for removing dynamic objects from point\n\t\t\t\t\tclouds","volume-title":"IEEE International Conference on\n\t\t\t\t\tRobotics and Automation (ICRA)","author":"Pagad","year":"2020"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R20","first-page":"4735","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Explicit 3D\n\t\t\t\t\tchange detection using ray-tracing in spherical\n\t\t\t\t\tcoordinates","volume-title":"IEEE International Conference\n\t\t\t\t\ton Robotics and Automation","author":"Underwood","year":"2013"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2023.01.010","type":"journal-article","volume":"197","author":"Stilla","year":"2023","journal-title":"ISPRS\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2021.103675","type":"journal-article","volume":"126","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autom.\n\t\t\t\t\tConstr."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R23","first-page":"3712","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Long-term\n\t\t\t\t\t3D map maintenance in dynamic environments","volume-title":"IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation\n\t\t\t\t\t(ICRA)","author":"Pomerleau","year":"2014"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2023.3323938","type":"journal-article","volume":"40","author":"Ebadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Rob."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R25","first-page":"67","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Multi-sensor fusion SLAM based on fast euclidean\n\t\t\t\t\tclustering to filter dynamic targets","volume-title":"9th\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Conference on Signal and Image Processing\n\t\t\t\t\t(ICSIP)","author":"Geng","year":"2024"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2244","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2024.3496489","type":"journal-article","volume":"35","author":"Qi","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2021.108225","type":"journal-article","volume":"121","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit."},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R28","first-page":"5","type":"journal-article","article-title":"ROS: An\n\t\t\t\t\topen-source robot operating system","volume-title":"ICRA\n\t\t\t\t\tWorkshop on Open Source Software 3, no. 3.2","author":"Quigley","year":"2009"},{"key":"ao-65-9-3113-R29","first-page":"9296","type":"journal-article","article-title":"SemanticKITTI: A dataset for semantic scene\n\t\t\t\t\tunderstanding of LiDAR sequences","volume-title":"IEEE\/CVF\n\t\t\t\t\tInternational Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV)","author":"Behley","year":"2019"}],"container-title":["Applied Optics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/viewmedia.cfm?URI=ao-65-9-3113&seq=0","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T14:24:23Z","timestamp":1778682263000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/opg.optica.org\/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-65-9-3113"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/ao.588185","relation":{},"ISSN":["1559-128X","2155-3165"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1559-128X","type":"print"},{"value":"2155-3165","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Optica Publishing Group","name":"publisher","label":"This article is maintained by"},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/AO.588185","name":"articlelink","label":"Crossref DOI link to publisher maintained version"},{"value":"research-article","name":"content_type","label":"Article type"},{"value":"Screened by Similarity Check","name":"cross_check","label":"Similarity check"},{"value":"Yes","order":0,"name":"peer_reviewed","label":"Peer reviewed","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"Single blind","order":1,"name":"review_process","label":"Review process","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"18 December 2025","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"15 February 2026","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"16 March 2026","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Optica Publishing Group. All rights, including\n\t\t\t\t\tfor text and data mining (TDM), Artificial Intelligence (AI) training,\n\t\t\t\t\tand similar technologies, are reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]}}